## A multivector Lagrangian for Maxwell’s equation: A summary of previous exploration.

This summarizes the significant parts of the last 8 blog posts.

## STA form of Maxwell’s equation.

Maxwell’s equations, with electric and fictional magnetic sources (useful for antenna theory and other engineering applications), are
\label{eqn:maxwellLagrangian:220}
\begin{aligned}
\spacegrad \cdot \BE &= \frac{\rho}{\epsilon} \\
\spacegrad \cross \BE &= – \BM – \mu \PD{t}{\BH} \\
\spacegrad \cdot \BH &= \frac{\rho_\txtm}{\mu} \\
\spacegrad \cross \BH &= \BJ + \epsilon \PD{t}{\BE}.
\end{aligned}

We can assemble these into a single geometric algebra equation,
\label{eqn:maxwellLagrangian:240}
\lr{ \spacegrad + \inv{c} \PD{t}{} } F = \eta \lr{ c \rho – \BJ } + I \lr{ c \rho_{\mathrm{m}} – \BM },

where $$F = \BE + \eta I \BH = \BE + I c \BB$$, $$c = 1/\sqrt{\mu\epsilon}, \eta = \sqrt{(\mu/\epsilon)}$$.

By multiplying through by $$\gamma_0$$, making the identification $$\Be_k = \gamma_k \gamma_0$$, and
\label{eqn:maxwellLagrangian:300}
\begin{aligned}
J^0 &= \frac{\rho}{\epsilon}, \quad J^k = \eta \lr{ \BJ \cdot \Be_k }, \quad J = J^\mu \gamma_\mu \\
M^0 &= c \rho_{\mathrm{m}}, \quad M^k = \BM \cdot \Be_k, \quad M = M^\mu \gamma_\mu \\
\end{aligned}

we find the STA form of Maxwell’s equation, including magnetic sources
\label{eqn:maxwellLagrangian:320}
\grad F = J – I M.

## Decoupling the electric and magnetic fields and sources.

We can utilize two separate four-vector potential fields to split Maxwell’s equation into two parts. Let
\label{eqn:maxwellLagrangian:1740}
F = F_{\mathrm{e}} + I F_{\mathrm{m}},

where
\label{eqn:maxwellLagrangian:1760}
\begin{aligned}
F_{\mathrm{e}} &= \grad \wedge A \\
\end{aligned}

and $$A, K$$ are independent four-vector potential fields. Plugging this into Maxwell’s equation, and employing a duality transformation, gives us two coupled vector grade equations
\label{eqn:maxwellLagrangian:1780}
\begin{aligned}
\grad \cdot F_{\mathrm{e}} – I \lr{ \grad \wedge F_{\mathrm{m}} } &= J \\
\grad \cdot F_{\mathrm{m}} + I \lr{ \grad \wedge F_{\mathrm{e}} } &= M.
\end{aligned}

However, since $$\grad \wedge F_{\mathrm{m}} = \grad \wedge F_{\mathrm{e}} = 0$$, by construction, the curls above are killed. We may also add in $$\grad \wedge F_{\mathrm{e}} = 0$$ and $$\grad \wedge F_{\mathrm{m}} = 0$$ respectively, yielding two independent gradient equations
\label{eqn:maxwellLagrangian:1810}
\begin{aligned}
\end{aligned}

one for each of the electric and magnetic sources and their associated fields.

## Tensor formulation.

The electromagnetic field $$F$$, is a vector-bivector multivector in the multivector representation of Maxwell’s equation, but is a bivector in the STA representation. The split of $$F$$ into it’s electric and magnetic field components is observer dependent, but we may write it without reference to a specific observer frame as
\label{eqn:maxwellLagrangian:1830}
F = \inv{2} \gamma_\mu \wedge \gamma_\nu F^{\mu\nu},

where $$F^{\mu\nu}$$ is an arbitrary antisymmetric 2nd rank tensor. Maxwell’s equation has a vector and trivector component, which may be split out explicitly using grade selection, to find
\label{eqn:maxwellLagrangian:360}
\begin{aligned}
\grad \cdot F &= J \\
\grad \wedge F &= -I M.
\end{aligned}

Further dotting and wedging these equations with $$\gamma^\mu$$ allows for extraction of scalar relations
\label{eqn:maxwellLagrangian:460}
\partial_\nu F^{\nu\mu} = J^{\mu}, \quad \partial_\nu G^{\nu\mu} = M^{\mu},

where $$G^{\mu\nu} = -(1/2) \epsilon^{\mu\nu\alpha\beta} F_{\alpha\beta}$$ is also an antisymmetric 2nd rank tensor.

If we treat $$F^{\mu\nu}$$ and $$G^{\mu\nu}$$ as independent fields, this pair of equations is the coordinate equivalent to \ref{eqn:maxwellLagrangian:1760}, also decoupling the electric and magnetic source contributions to Maxwell’s equation.

## Coordinate representation of the Lagrangian.

As observed above, we may choose to express the decoupled fields as curls $$F_{\mathrm{e}} = \grad \wedge A$$ or $$F_{\mathrm{m}} = \grad \wedge K$$. The coordinate expansion of either field component, given such a representation, is straight forward. For example
\label{eqn:maxwellLagrangian:1850}
\begin{aligned}
F_{\mathrm{e}}
&= \lr{ \gamma_\mu \partial^\mu } \wedge \lr{ \gamma_\nu A^\nu } \\
&= \inv{2} \lr{ \gamma_\mu \wedge \gamma_\nu } \lr{ \partial^\mu A^\nu – \partial^\nu A^\mu }.
\end{aligned}

We make the identification $$F^{\mu\nu} = \partial^\mu A^\nu – \partial^\nu A^\mu$$, the usual definition of $$F^{\mu\nu}$$ in the tensor formalism. In that tensor formalism, the Maxwell Lagrangian is
\label{eqn:maxwellLagrangian:1870}
\LL = – \inv{4} F_{\mu\nu} F^{\mu\nu} – A_\mu J^\mu.

We may show this though application of the Euler-Lagrange equations
\label{eqn:maxwellLagrangian:600}
\PD{A_\mu}{\LL} = \partial_\nu \PD{(\partial_\nu A_\mu)}{\LL}.

\label{eqn:maxwellLagrangian:1930}
\begin{aligned}
\PD{(\partial_\nu A_\mu)}{\LL}
&= -\inv{4} (2) \lr{ \PD{(\partial_\nu A_\mu)}{F_{\alpha\beta}} } F^{\alpha\beta} \\
&= -\inv{2} \delta^{[\nu\mu]}_{\alpha\beta} F^{\alpha\beta} \\
&= -\inv{2} \lr{ F^{\nu\mu} – F^{\mu\nu} } \\
&= F^{\mu\nu}.
\end{aligned}

So $$\partial_\nu F^{\nu\mu} = J^\mu$$, the equivalent of $$\grad \cdot F = J$$, as expected.

## Coordinate-free representation and variation of the Lagrangian.

Because
\label{eqn:maxwellLagrangian:200}
F^2 =
-\inv{2}
F^{\mu\nu} F_{\mu\nu}
+
\lr{ \gamma_\alpha \wedge \gamma^\beta }
F_{\alpha\mu}
F^{\beta\mu}
+
\frac{I}{4}
\epsilon_{\mu\nu\alpha\beta} F^{\mu\nu} F^{\alpha\beta},

we may express the Lagrangian \ref{eqn:maxwellLagrangian:1870} in a coordinate free representation
\label{eqn:maxwellLagrangian:1890}
\LL = \inv{2} F \cdot F – A \cdot J,

where $$F = \grad \wedge A$$.

We will now show that it is also possible to apply the variational principle to the following multivector Lagrangian
\label{eqn:maxwellLagrangian:1910}
\LL = \inv{2} F^2 – A \cdot J,

and recover the geometric algebra form $$\grad F = J$$ of Maxwell’s equation in it’s entirety, including both vector and trivector components in one shot.

We will need a few geometric algebra tools to do this.

The first such tool is the notational freedom to let the gradient act bidirectionally on multivectors to the left and right. We will designate such action with over-arrows, sometimes also using braces to limit the scope of the action in question. If $$Q, R$$ are multivectors, then the bidirectional action of the gradient in a $$Q, R$$ sandwich is
\label{eqn:maxwellLagrangian:1950}
\begin{aligned}
&= \lr{ Q \gamma^\mu \lpartial_\mu } R + Q \lr{ \gamma^\mu \rpartial_\mu R } \\
&= \lr{ \partial_\mu Q } \gamma^\mu R + Q \gamma^\mu \lr{ \partial_\mu R }.
\end{aligned}

In the final statement, the partials are acting exclusively on $$Q$$ and $$R$$ respectively, but the $$\gamma^\mu$$ factors must remain in place, as they do not necessarily commute with any of the multivector factors.

This bidirectional action is a critical aspect of the Fundamental Theorem of Geometric calculus, another tool that we will require. The specific form of that theorem that we will utilize here is
\label{eqn:maxwellLagrangian:1970}
\int_V Q d^4 \Bx \lrgrad R = \int_{\partial V} Q d^3 \Bx R,

where $$d^4 \Bx = I d^4 x$$ is the pseudoscalar four-volume element associated with a parameterization of space time. For our purposes, we may assume that parameterization are standard basis coordinates associated with the basis $$\setlr{ \gamma_0, \gamma_1, \gamma_2, \gamma_3 }$$. The surface differential form $$d^3 \Bx$$ can be given specific meaning, but we do not actually care what that form is here, as all our surface integrals will be zero due to the boundary constraints of the variational principle.

Finally, we will utilize the fact that bivector products can be split into grade $$0,4$$ and $$2$$ components using anticommutator and commutator products, namely, given two bivectors $$F, G$$, we have
\label{eqn:maxwellLagrangian:1990}
\begin{aligned}
\gpgrade{ F G }{0,4} &= \inv{2} \lr{ F G + G F } \\
\gpgrade{ F G }{2} &= \inv{2} \lr{ F G – G F }.
\end{aligned}

We may now proceed to evaluate the variation of the action for our presumed Lagrangian
\label{eqn:maxwellLagrangian:2010}
S = \int d^4 x \lr{ \inv{2} F^2 – A \cdot J }.

We seek solutions of the variational equation $$\delta S = 0$$, that are satisfied for all variations $$\delta A$$, where the four-potential variations $$\delta A$$ are zero on the boundaries of this action volume (i.e. an infinite spherical surface.)

We may start our variation in terms of $$F$$ and $$A$$
\label{eqn:maxwellLagrangian:1540}
\begin{aligned}
\delta S
&=
\int d^4 x \lr{ \inv{2} \lr{ \delta F } F + F \lr{ \delta F } } – \lr{ \delta A } \cdot J \\
&=
\int d^4 x \gpgrade{ \lr{ \delta F } F – \lr{ \delta A } J }{0,4} \\
&=
\int d^4 x \gpgrade{ \lr{ \grad \wedge \lr{\delta A} } F – \lr{ \delta A } J }{0,4} \\
&=
-\int d^4 x \gpgrade{ \lr{ \lr{\delta A} \lgrad } F – \lr{ \lr{ \delta A } \cdot \lgrad } F + \lr{ \delta A } J }{0,4} \\
&=
-\int d^4 x \gpgrade{ \lr{ \lr{\delta A} \lgrad } F + \lr{ \delta A } J }{0,4} \\
&=
-\int d^4 x \gpgrade{ \lr{\delta A} \lrgrad F – \lr{\delta A} \rgrad F + \lr{ \delta A } J }{0,4},
\end{aligned}

where we have used arrows, when required, to indicate the directional action of the gradient.

Writing $$d^4 x = -I d^4 \Bx$$, we have
\label{eqn:maxwellLagrangian:1600}
\begin{aligned}
\delta S
&=
-\int_V d^4 x \gpgrade{ \lr{\delta A} \lrgrad F – \lr{\delta A} \rgrad F + \lr{ \delta A } J }{0,4} \\
&=
-\int_V \gpgrade{ -\lr{\delta A} I d^4 \Bx \lrgrad F – d^4 x \lr{\delta A} \rgrad F + d^4 x \lr{ \delta A } J }{0,4} \\
&=
\int_{\partial V} \gpgrade{ \lr{\delta A} I d^3 \Bx F }{0,4}
+ \int_V d^4 x \gpgrade{ \lr{\delta A} \lr{ \rgrad F – J } }{0,4}.
\end{aligned}

The first integral is killed since $$\delta A = 0$$ on the boundary. The remaining integrand can be simplified to
\label{eqn:maxwellLagrangian:1660}

where the grade-4 filter has also been discarded since $$\grad F = \grad \cdot F + \grad \wedge F = \grad \cdot F$$ since $$\grad \wedge F = \grad \wedge \grad \wedge A = 0$$ by construction, which implies that the only non-zero grades in the multivector $$\grad F – J$$ are vector grades. Also, the directional indicator on the gradient has been dropped, since there is no longer any ambiguity. We seek solutions of $$\gpgrade{ \lr{\delta A} \lr{ \grad F – J } }{0} = 0$$ for all variations $$\delta A$$, namely
\label{eqn:maxwellLagrangian:1620}
\boxed{
}

This is Maxwell’s equation in it’s coordinate free STA form, found using the variational principle from a coordinate free multivector Maxwell Lagrangian, without having to resort to a coordinate expansion of that Lagrangian.

## Lagrangian for fictitious magnetic sources.

The generalization of the Lagrangian to include magnetic charge and current densities can be as simple as utilizing two independent four-potential fields
\label{eqn:maxwellLagrangian:n}
\LL = \inv{2} \lr{ \grad \wedge A }^2 – A \cdot J + \alpha \lr{ \inv{2} \lr{ \grad \wedge K }^2 – K \cdot M },

where $$\alpha$$ is an arbitrary multivector constant.

Variation of this Lagrangian provides two independent equations
\label{eqn:maxwellLagrangian:1840}
\begin{aligned}
\end{aligned}

We may add these, scaling the second by $$-I$$ (recall that $$I, \grad$$ anticommute), to find
\label{eqn:maxwellLagrangian:1860}
\grad \lr{ F_{\mathrm{e}} + I F_{\mathrm{m}} } = J – I M,

which is $$\grad F = J – I M$$, as desired.

It would be interesting to explore whether it is possible find Lagrangian that is dependent on a multivector potential, that would yield $$\grad F = J – I M$$ directly, instead of requiring a superposition operation from the two independent solutions. One such possible potential is $$\tilde{A} = A – I K$$, for which $$F = \gpgradetwo{ \grad \tilde{A} } = \grad \wedge A + I \lr{ \grad \wedge K }$$. The author was not successful constructing such a Lagrangian.

## Almost an academic author: Appendix B: Representation of Dyadics via Geometric Algebra

I corresponded for a bit with the author of a paper on variations and inconsistencies with dyadic notation that is used in some fluid flow and other problems.  In the end I ended up contributing an appendix (Appendix B: Representation of Dyadics via Geometric Algebra) to their paper, which has been submitted to an academic journal (I forget which one.)

I’ve written thousands of pages of independent musings as blog posts, and even a book (self published, and also available for free in pdf form), but this is the first time anything that I’ve written has ended up in an academic journal.

You can find a preprint here on arxiv

[If mathjax doesn’t display properly for you, click here for a PDF of this post]

This is an exploration of the dyadic representation of the gradient acting on a vector in $$\mathbb{R}^3$$, where we determine a tensor product formulation of a vector differential. Such a tensor product formulation can be split into symmetric and antisymmetric components. The geometric algebra (GA) equivalents of such a split are determined.

There is an error in part of the analysis below, which is addressed in a followup post made the next day.

## GA gradient of a vector.

In GA we are free to express the product of the gradient and a vector field by adjacency. In coordinates (summation over repeated indexes assumed), such a product has the form
= \lr{ \Be_i \partial_i } \lr{ v_j \Be_j }
= \lr{ \partial_i v_j } \Be_i \Be_j.

In this sum, any terms with $$i = j$$ are scalars since $$\Be_i^2 = 1$$, and the remaining terms are bivectors. This can be written compactly as

or for $$\mathbb{R}^3$$

either of which breaks the gradient into into divergence and curl components. In \ref{eqn:dyadicVsGa:40} this vector gradient is expressed using the bivector valued curl operator $$(\spacegrad \wedge \Bv)$$, whereas \ref{eqn:dyadicVsGa:60} is expressed using the vector valued dual form of the curl $$(\spacegrad \cross \Bv)$$ from convential vector algebra.

It is worth noting that order matters in the GA coordinate expansion of \ref{eqn:dyadicVsGa:20}. It is not correct to write
= \lr{ \partial_i v_j } \Be_j \Be_i,

which is only true when the curl, $$\spacegrad \wedge \Bv = 0$$, is zero.

Given a vector field $$\Bv = \Bv(\Bx)$$, the differential of that field can be computed by chain rule
d\Bv = \PD{x_i}{\Bv} dx_i = \lr{ d\Bx \cdot \spacegrad} \Bv,

where $$d\Bx = \Be_i dx_i$$. This is a representation invariant form of the differential, where we have a scalar operator $$d\Bx \cdot \spacegrad$$ acting on the vector field $$\Bv$$. The matrix representation of this differential can be written as
d\Bv = \lr{
{\begin{bmatrix}
d\Bx
\end{bmatrix}}^\dagger
\begin{bmatrix}
\end{bmatrix}
}
\begin{bmatrix}
\Bv
\end{bmatrix}
,

where we are using the dagger to designate transposition, and each of the terms on the right are the coordinate matrixes of the vectors with respect to the standard basis
\begin{bmatrix}
d\Bx
\end{bmatrix}
=
\begin{bmatrix}
dx_1 \\
dx_2 \\
dx_3
\begin{bmatrix}
\Bv
\end{bmatrix}
=
\begin{bmatrix}
v_1 \\
v_2 \\
v_3
\begin{bmatrix}
\end{bmatrix}
=
\begin{bmatrix}
\partial_1 \\
\partial_2 \\
\partial_3
\end{bmatrix}.

In \ref{eqn:dyadicVsGa:120} the parens are very important, as the expression is meaningless without them. With the parens we have a $$(1 \times 3)(3 \times 1)$$ matrix (i.e. a scalar) multiplied with a $$3\times 1$$ matrix. That becomes ill-formed if we drop the parens since we are left with an incompatible product of a $$(3\times1)(3\times1)$$ matrix on the right. The dyadic notation, which introducing a tensor product into the mix, is a mechanism to make sense of the possibility of such a product. Can we make sense of an expression like $$\spacegrad \Bv$$ without the geometric product in our toolbox?

Stepping towards that question, let’s examine the coordinate expansion of our vector differential \ref{eqn:dyadicVsGa:100}, which is
d\Bv = dx_i \lr{ \partial_i v_j } \Be_j.

If we allow a matrix of vectors, this has a block matrix form
d\Bv =
{\begin{bmatrix}
d\Bx
\end{bmatrix}}^\dagger
\begin{bmatrix}
\end{bmatrix}
\begin{bmatrix}
\Be_1 \\
\Be_2 \\
\Be_3
\end{bmatrix}
.

Here we introduce the tensor product
= \partial_i v_j \, \Be_i \otimes \Be_j,

and designate the matrix of coordinates $$\partial_i v_j$$, a second order tensor, by $$\begin{bmatrix} \spacegrad \otimes \Bv \end{bmatrix}$$.

We have succeeded in factoring out a vector gradient. We can introduce dot product between vectors and a direct product of vectors, by observing that \ref{eqn:dyadicVsGa:180} has the structure of a quadradic form, and define
\Bx \cdot (\Ba \otimes \Bb) \equiv
{\begin{bmatrix}
\Bx
\end{bmatrix}}^\dagger
\begin{bmatrix}
\Ba \otimes \Bb
\end{bmatrix}
\begin{bmatrix}
\Be_1 \\
\Be_2 \\
\Be_3
\end{bmatrix},

so that \ref{eqn:dyadicVsGa:180} takes the form
d\Bv = d\Bx \cdot \lr{ \spacegrad \otimes \Bv }.

Such a dot product gives operational meaning to the gradient-vector tensor product.

## Symmetrization and antisymmetrization of the vector differential in GA.

Using the dyadic notation, it’s possible to split a vector derivative into symmetric and antisymmetric components with respect to the gradient-vector direct product
d\Bv
= d\Bx \cdot
\lr{
\inv{2} \lr{ \spacegrad \otimes \Bv + \lr{ \spacegrad \otimes \Bv }^\dagger }
+
\inv{2} \lr{ \spacegrad \otimes \Bv – \lr{ \spacegrad \otimes \Bv }^\dagger }
},

or $$d\Bv = d\Bx \cdot \lr{ \Bd + \BOmega }$$, where $$\Bd$$ is a symmetric tensor, and $$\BOmega$$ is a traceless antisymmetric tensor.

A question of potential interest is “what GA equvivalent of this expression?”. There are two identities that are helpful for extracting this equivalence, the first of which is the k-blade vector product identities. Given a k-blade $$B_k$$ (i.e.: a product of $$k$$ orthogonal vectors, or the wedge of $$k$$ vectors), and a vector $$\Ba$$, the dot product of the two is
B_k \cdot \Ba = \inv{2} \lr{ B_k \Ba + (-1)^{k+1} \Ba B_k }

Specifically, given two vectors $$\Ba, \Bb$$, the vector dot product can be written as a symmetric sum
\Ba \cdot \Bb = \inv{2} \lr{ \Ba \Bb + \Bb \Ba } = \Bb \cdot \Ba,

and given a bivector $$B$$ and a vector $$\Ba$$, the bivector-vector dot product can be written as an antisymmetric sum
B \cdot \Ba = \inv{2} \lr{ B \Ba – \Ba B } = – \Ba \cdot B.

We may apply these to expressions where one of the vector terms is the gradient, but must allow for the gradient to act bidirectionally. That is, given multivectors $$M, N$$
=
\partial_i (M \Be_i N)
=
(\partial_i M) \Be_i N + M \Be_i (\partial_i N),

where parens have been used to indicate the scope of applicibility of the partials. In particular, this means that we may write the divergence as a GA symmetric sum
\spacegrad \cdot \Bv = \inv{2} \lr{

which clearly corresponds to the symmetric term $$\Bd = (1/2) \lr{ \spacegrad \otimes \Bv + \lr{ \spacegrad \otimes \Bv }^\dagger }$$ from \ref{eqn:dyadicVsGa:260}.

Let’s assume that we can write our vector differential in terms of a divergence term isomorphic to the symmetric sum in \ref{eqn:dyadicVsGa:260}, and a “something else”, $$\BX$$. That is
\begin{aligned}
d\Bv
&= \lr{ d\Bx \cdot \spacegrad } \Bv \\
&= d\Bx (\spacegrad \cdot \Bv) + \BX,
\end{aligned}

where
\BX = \lr{ d\Bx \cdot \spacegrad } \Bv – d\Bx (\spacegrad \cdot \Bv),

is a vector expression to be reduced to something simpler. That reduction is possible using the distribution identity
\Bc \cdot (\Ba \wedge \Bb)
=
(\Bc \cdot \Ba) \Bb
– (\Bc \cdot \Bb) \Ba,

so we find
\BX = \spacegrad \cdot \lr{ d\Bx \wedge \Bv }.

We find the following GA split of the vector differential into symmetric and antisymmetric terms
\boxed{
d\Bv
+
\spacegrad \cdot \lr{ d\Bx \wedge \Bv }.
}

Such a split avoids the indeterminant nature of the tensor product, which we only give meaning by introducing the quadratic form based dot product given by \ref{eqn:dyadicVsGa:220}.

## Notes.

Due to limitations in the MathJax-Latex package, all the oriented integrals in this blog post should be interpreted as having a clockwise orientation. [See the PDF version of this post for more sophisticated formatting.]

## Guts.

Given a two dimensional generating vector space, there are two instances of the fundamental theorem for multivector integration
\label{eqn:unpackingFundamentalTheorem:20}
\int_S F d\Bx \lrpartial G = \evalbar{F G}{\Delta S},

and
\label{eqn:unpackingFundamentalTheorem:40}
\int_S F d^2\Bx \lrpartial G = \oint_{\partial S} F d\Bx G.

The first case is trivial. Given a parameterizated curve $$x = x(u)$$, it just states
\label{eqn:unpackingFundamentalTheorem:60}
\int_{u(0)}^{u(1)} du \PD{u}{}\lr{FG} = F(u(1))G(u(1)) – F(u(0))G(u(0)),

for all multivectors $$F, G$$, regardless of the signature of the underlying space.

The surface integral is more interesting. Let’s first look at the area element for this surface integral, which is
\label{eqn:unpackingFundamentalTheorem:80}
d^2 \Bx = d\Bx_u \wedge d \Bx_v.

Geometrically, this has the area of the parallelogram spanned by $$d\Bx_u$$ and $$d\Bx_v$$, but weighted by the pseudoscalar of the space. This is explored algebraically in the following problem and illustrated in fig. 1.

fig. 1. 2D vector space and area element.

## Problem: Expansion of 2D area bivector.

Let $$\setlr{e_1, e_2}$$ be an orthonormal basis for a two dimensional space, with reciprocal frame $$\setlr{e^1, e^2}$$. Expand the area bivector $$d^2 \Bx$$ in coordinates relating the bivector to the Jacobian and the pseudoscalar.

With parameterization $$x = x(u,v) = x^\alpha e_\alpha = x_\alpha e^\alpha$$, we have
\label{eqn:unpackingFundamentalTheorem:120}
\Bx_u \wedge \Bx_v
=
\lr{ \PD{u}{x^\alpha} e_\alpha } \wedge
\lr{ \PD{v}{x^\beta} e_\beta }
=
\PD{u}{x^\alpha}
\PD{v}{x^\beta}
e_\alpha
e_\beta
=
\PD{(u,v)}{(x^1,x^2)} e_1 e_2,

or
\label{eqn:unpackingFundamentalTheorem:160}
\Bx_u \wedge \Bx_v
=
\lr{ \PD{u}{x_\alpha} e^\alpha } \wedge
\lr{ \PD{v}{x_\beta} e^\beta }
=
\PD{u}{x_\alpha}
\PD{v}{x_\beta}
e^\alpha
e^\beta
=
\PD{(u,v)}{(x_1,x_2)} e^1 e^2.

The upper and lower index pseudoscalars are related by
\label{eqn:unpackingFundamentalTheorem:180}
e^1 e^2 e_1 e_2 =
-e^1 e^2 e_2 e_1 =
-1,

so with $$I = e_1 e_2$$,
\label{eqn:unpackingFundamentalTheorem:200}
e^1 e^2 = -I^{-1},

leaving us with
\label{eqn:unpackingFundamentalTheorem:140}
d^2 \Bx
= \PD{(u,v)}{(x^1,x^2)} du dv\, I
= -\PD{(u,v)}{(x_1,x_2)} du dv\, I^{-1}.

We see that the area bivector is proportional to either the upper or lower index Jacobian and to the pseudoscalar for the space.

We may write the fundamental theorem for a 2D space as
\label{eqn:unpackingFundamentalTheorem:680}
\int_S du dv \, \PD{(u,v)}{(x^1,x^2)} F I \lrgrad G = \oint_{\partial S} F d\Bx G,

where we have dispensed with the vector derivative and use the gradient instead, since they are identical in a two parameter two dimensional space. Of course, unless we are using $$x^1, x^2$$ as our parameterization, we still want the curvilinear representation of the gradient $$\grad = \Bx^u \PDi{u}{} + \Bx^v \PDi{v}{}$$.

## Problem: Standard basis expansion of fundamental surface relation.

For a parameterization $$x = x^1 e_1 + x^2 e_2$$, where $$\setlr{ e_1, e_2 }$$ is a standard (orthogonal) basis, expand the fundamental theorem for surface integrals for the single sided $$F = 1$$ case. Consider functions $$G$$ of each grade (scalar, vector, bivector.)

From \ref{eqn:unpackingFundamentalTheorem:140} we see that the fundamental theorem takes the form
\label{eqn:unpackingFundamentalTheorem:220}
\int_S dx^1 dx^2\, F I \lrgrad G = \oint_{\partial S} F d\Bx G.

In a Euclidean space, the operator $$I \lrgrad$$, is a $$\pi/2$$ rotation of the gradient, but has a rotated like structure in all metrics:
\label{eqn:unpackingFundamentalTheorem:240}
=
e_1 e_2 \lr{ e^1 \partial_1 + e^2 \partial_2 }
=
-e_2 \partial_1 + e_1 \partial_2.

• $$F = 1$$ and $$G \in \bigwedge^0$$ or $$G \in \bigwedge^2$$. For $$F = 1$$ and scalar or bivector $$G$$ we have
\label{eqn:unpackingFundamentalTheorem:260}
\int_S dx^1 dx^2\, \lr{ -e_2 \partial_1 + e_1 \partial_2 } G = \oint_{\partial S} d\Bx G,

where, for $$x^1 \in [x^1(0),x^1(1)]$$ and $$x^2 \in [x^2(0),x^2(1)]$$, the RHS written explicitly is
\label{eqn:unpackingFundamentalTheorem:280}
\oint_{\partial S} d\Bx G
=
\int dx^1 e_1
\lr{ G(x^1, x^2(1)) – G(x^1, x^2(0)) }
– dx^2 e_2
\lr{ G(x^1(1),x^2) – G(x^1(0), x^2) }.

This is sketched in fig. 2. Since a 2D bivector $$G$$ can be written as $$G = I g$$, where $$g$$ is a scalar, we may write the pseudoscalar case as
\label{eqn:unpackingFundamentalTheorem:300}
\int_S dx^1 dx^2\, \lr{ -e_2 \partial_1 + e_1 \partial_2 } g = \oint_{\partial S} d\Bx g,

after right multiplying both sides with $$I^{-1}$$. Algebraically the scalar and pseudoscalar cases can be thought of as identical scalar relationships.
• $$F = 1, G \in \bigwedge^1$$. For $$F = 1$$ and vector $$G$$ the 2D fundamental theorem for surfaces can be split into scalar
\label{eqn:unpackingFundamentalTheorem:320}
\int_S dx^1 dx^2\, \lr{ -e_2 \partial_1 + e_1 \partial_2 } \cdot G = \oint_{\partial S} d\Bx \cdot G,

and bivector relations
\label{eqn:unpackingFundamentalTheorem:340}
\int_S dx^1 dx^2\, \lr{ -e_2 \partial_1 + e_1 \partial_2 } \wedge G = \oint_{\partial S} d\Bx \wedge G.

To expand \ref{eqn:unpackingFundamentalTheorem:320}, let
\label{eqn:unpackingFundamentalTheorem:360}
G = g_1 e^1 + g_2 e^2,

for which
\label{eqn:unpackingFundamentalTheorem:380}
\lr{ -e_2 \partial_1 + e_1 \partial_2 } \cdot G
=
\lr{ -e_2 \partial_1 + e_1 \partial_2 } \cdot
\lr{ g_1 e^1 + g_2 e^2 }
=
\partial_2 g_1 – \partial_1 g_2,

and
\label{eqn:unpackingFundamentalTheorem:400}
d\Bx \cdot G
=
\lr{ dx^1 e_1 – dx^2 e_2 } \cdot \lr{ g_1 e^1 + g_2 e^2 }
=
dx^1 g_1 – dx^2 g_2,

so \ref{eqn:unpackingFundamentalTheorem:320} expands to
\label{eqn:unpackingFundamentalTheorem:500}
\int_S dx^1 dx^2\, \lr{ \partial_2 g_1 – \partial_1 g_2 }
=
\int
\evalbar{dx^1 g_1}{\Delta x^2} – \evalbar{ dx^2 g_2 }{\Delta x^1}.

This coordinate expansion illustrates how the pseudoscalar nature of the area element results in a duality transformation, as we end up with a curl like operation on the LHS, despite the dot product nature of the decomposition that we used. That can also be seen directly for vector $$G$$, since
\label{eqn:unpackingFundamentalTheorem:560}
=
=
dA I \lr{ \grad \wedge G },

since the scalar selection of $$I \lr{ \grad \cdot G }$$ is zero.In the grade-2 relation \ref{eqn:unpackingFundamentalTheorem:340}, we expect a pseudoscalar cancellation on both sides, leaving a scalar (divergence-like) relationship. This time, we use upper index coordinates for the vector $$G$$, letting
\label{eqn:unpackingFundamentalTheorem:440}
G = g^1 e_1 + g^2 e_2,

so
\label{eqn:unpackingFundamentalTheorem:460}
\lr{ -e_2 \partial_1 + e_1 \partial_2 } \wedge G
=
\lr{ -e_2 \partial_1 + e_1 \partial_2 } \wedge G
\lr{ g^1 e_1 + g^2 e_2 }
=
e_1 e_2 \lr{ \partial_1 g^1 + \partial_2 g^2 },

and
\label{eqn:unpackingFundamentalTheorem:480}
d\Bx \wedge G
=
\lr{ dx^1 e_1 – dx^2 e_2 } \wedge
\lr{ g^1 e_1 + g^2 e_2 }
=
e_1 e_2 \lr{ dx^1 g^2 + dx^2 g^1 }.

So \ref{eqn:unpackingFundamentalTheorem:340}, after multiplication of both sides by $$I^{-1}$$, is
\label{eqn:unpackingFundamentalTheorem:520}
\int_S dx^1 dx^2\,
\lr{ \partial_1 g^1 + \partial_2 g^2 }
=
\int
\evalbar{dx^1 g^2}{\Delta x^2} + \evalbar{dx^2 g^1 }{\Delta x^1}.

As before, we’ve implicitly performed a duality transformation, and end up with a divergence operation. That can be seen directly without coordinate expansion, by rewriting the wedge as a grade two selection, and expanding the gradient action on the vector $$G$$, as follows
\label{eqn:unpackingFundamentalTheorem:580}
=
=
dA I \lr{ \grad \cdot G },

since $$I \lr{ \grad \wedge G }$$ has only a scalar component.

fig. 2. Line integral around rectangular boundary.

## Theorem 1.1: Green’s theorem [1].

Let $$S$$ be a Jordan region with a piecewise-smooth boundary $$C$$. If $$P, Q$$ are continuously differentiable on an open set that contains $$S$$, then
\begin{equation*}
\int dx dy \lr{ \PD{y}{P} – \PD{x}{Q} } = \oint P dx + Q dy.
\end{equation*}

## Problem: Relationship to Green’s theorem.

If the space is Euclidean, show that \ref{eqn:unpackingFundamentalTheorem:500} and \ref{eqn:unpackingFundamentalTheorem:520} are both instances of Green’s theorem with suitable choices of $$P$$ and $$Q$$.

I will omit the subtleties related to general regions and consider just the case of an infinitesimal square region.

### Start proof:

Let’s start with \ref{eqn:unpackingFundamentalTheorem:500}, with $$g_1 = P$$ and $$g_2 = Q$$, and $$x^1 = x, x^2 = y$$, the RHS is
\label{eqn:unpackingFundamentalTheorem:600}
\int dx dy \lr{ \PD{y}{P} – \PD{x}{Q} }.

On the RHS we have
\label{eqn:unpackingFundamentalTheorem:620}
\int \evalbar{dx P}{\Delta y} – \evalbar{ dy Q }{\Delta x}
=
\int dx \lr{ P(x, y_1) – P(x, y_0) } – \int dy \lr{ Q(x_1, y) – Q(x_0, y) }.

This pair of integrals is plotted in fig. 3, from which we see that \ref{eqn:unpackingFundamentalTheorem:620} can be expressed as the line integral, leaving us with
\label{eqn:unpackingFundamentalTheorem:640}
\int dx dy \lr{ \PD{y}{P} – \PD{x}{Q} }
=
\oint dx P + dy Q,

which is Green’s theorem over the infinitesimal square integration region.

For the equivalence of \ref{eqn:unpackingFundamentalTheorem:520} to Green’s theorem, let $$g^2 = P$$, and $$g^1 = -Q$$. Plugging into the LHS, we find the Green’s theorem integrand. On the RHS, the integrand expands to
\label{eqn:unpackingFundamentalTheorem:660}
\evalbar{dx g^2}{\Delta y} + \evalbar{dy g^1 }{\Delta x}
=
dx \lr{ P(x,y_1) – P(x, y_0)}
+
dy \lr{ -Q(x_1, y) + Q(x_0, y)},

which is exactly what we found in \ref{eqn:unpackingFundamentalTheorem:620}.

### End proof.

fig. 3. Path for Green’s theorem.

We may also relate multivector gradient integrals in 2D to the normal integral around the boundary of the bounding curve. That relationship is as follows.

## Theorem 1.2: 2D gradient integrals.

\begin{equation*}
\begin{aligned}
\int J du dv \rgrad G &= \oint I^{-1} d\Bx G = \int J \lr{ \Bx^v du + \Bx^u dv } G \\
\int J du dv F \lgrad &= \oint F I^{-1} d\Bx = \int J F \lr{ \Bx^v du + \Bx^u dv },
\end{aligned}
\end{equation*}
where $$J = \partial(x^1, x^2)/\partial(u,v)$$ is the Jacobian of the parameterization $$x = x(u,v)$$. In terms of the coordinates $$x^1, x^2$$, this reduces to
\begin{equation*}
\begin{aligned}
\int dx^1 dx^2 \rgrad G &= \oint I^{-1} d\Bx G = \int \lr{ e^2 dx^1 + e^1 dx^2 } G \\
\int dx^1 dx^2 F \lgrad &= \oint G I^{-1} d\Bx = \int F \lr{ e^2 dx^1 + e^1 dx^2 }.
\end{aligned}
\end{equation*}
The vector $$I^{-1} d\Bx$$ is orthogonal to the tangent vector along the boundary, and for Euclidean spaces it can be identified as the outwards normal.

### Start proof:

Respectively setting $$F = 1$$, and $$G = 1$$ in \ref{eqn:unpackingFundamentalTheorem:680}, we have
\label{eqn:unpackingFundamentalTheorem:940}
\int I^{-1} d^2 \Bx \rgrad G = \oint I^{-1} d\Bx G,

and
\label{eqn:unpackingFundamentalTheorem:960}
\int F d^2 \Bx \lgrad I^{-1} = \oint F d\Bx I^{-1}.

Starting with \ref{eqn:unpackingFundamentalTheorem:940} we find
\label{eqn:unpackingFundamentalTheorem:700}
\int I^{-1} J du dv I \rgrad G = \oint d\Bx G,

to find $$\int dx^1 dx^2 \rgrad G = \oint I^{-1} d\Bx G$$, as desireed. In terms of a parameterization $$x = x(u,v)$$, the pseudoscalar for the space is
\label{eqn:unpackingFundamentalTheorem:720}
I = \frac{\Bx_u \wedge \Bx_v}{J},

so
\label{eqn:unpackingFundamentalTheorem:740}
I^{-1} = \frac{J}{\Bx_u \wedge \Bx_v}.

Also note that $$\lr{\Bx_u \wedge \Bx_v}^{-1} = \Bx^v \wedge \Bx^u$$, so
\label{eqn:unpackingFundamentalTheorem:760}
I^{-1} = J \lr{ \Bx^v \wedge \Bx^u },

and
\label{eqn:unpackingFundamentalTheorem:780}
I^{-1} d\Bx
= I^{-1} \cdot d\Bx
= J \lr{ \Bx^v \wedge \Bx^u } \cdot \lr{ \Bx_u du – \Bx_v dv }
= J \lr{ \Bx^v du + \Bx^u dv },

so the right acting gradient integral is
\label{eqn:unpackingFundamentalTheorem:800}
\int J du dv \grad G =
\int
\evalbar{J \Bx^v G}{\Delta v} du + \evalbar{J \Bx^u G dv}{\Delta u},

which we write in abbreviated form as $$\int J \lr{ \Bx^v du + \Bx^u dv} G$$.

For the $$G = 1$$ case, from \ref{eqn:unpackingFundamentalTheorem:960} we find
\label{eqn:unpackingFundamentalTheorem:820}
\int J du dv F I \lgrad I^{-1} = \oint F d\Bx I^{-1}.

However, in a 2D space, regardless of metric, we have $$I a = – a I$$ for any vector $$a$$ (i.e. $$\grad$$ or $$d\Bx$$), so we may commute the outer pseudoscalars in
\label{eqn:unpackingFundamentalTheorem:840}
\int J du dv F I \lgrad I^{-1} = \oint F d\Bx I^{-1},

so
\label{eqn:unpackingFundamentalTheorem:850}
-\int J du dv F I I^{-1} \lgrad = -\oint F I^{-1} d\Bx.

After cancelling the negative sign on both sides, we have the claimed result.

To see that $$I a$$, for any vector $$a$$ is normal to $$a$$, we can compute the dot product
\label{eqn:unpackingFundamentalTheorem:860}
\lr{ I a } \cdot a
=
=
= 0,

since the scalar selection of a bivector is zero. Since $$I^{-1} = \pm I$$, the same argument shows that $$I^{-1} d\Bx$$ must be orthogonal to $$d\Bx$$.

### End proof.

Let’s look at the geometry of the normal $$I^{-1} \Bx$$ in a couple 2D vector spaces. We use an integration volume of a unit square to simplify the boundary term expressions.

• Euclidean: With a parameterization $$x(u,v) = u\Be_1 + v \Be_2$$, and Euclidean basis vectors $$(\Be_1)^2 = (\Be_2)^2 = 1$$, the fundamental theorem integrated over the rectangle $$[x_0,x_1] \times [y_0,y_1]$$ is
\label{eqn:unpackingFundamentalTheorem:880}
\int dx dy \grad G =
\int
\Be_2 \lr{ G(x,y_1) – G(x,y_0) } dx +
\Be_1 \lr{ G(x_1,y) – G(x_0,y) } dy,

Each of the terms in the integrand above are illustrated in fig. 4, and we see that this is a path integral weighted by the outwards normal.

fig. 4. Outwards oriented normal for Euclidean space.

• Spacetime: Let $$x(u,v) = u \gamma_0 + v \gamma_1$$, where $$(\gamma_0)^2 = -(\gamma_1)^2 = 1$$. With $$u = t, v = x$$, the gradient integral over a $$[t_0,t_1] \times [x_0,x_1]$$ of spacetime is
\label{eqn:unpackingFundamentalTheorem:900}
\begin{aligned}
&=
\int
\gamma^1 dt \lr{ G(t, x_1) – G(t, x_0) }
+
\gamma^0 dx \lr{ G(t_1, x) – G(t_1, x) } \\
&=
\int
\gamma_1 dt \lr{ -G(t, x_1) + G(t, x_0) }
+
\gamma_0 dx \lr{ G(t_1, x) – G(t_1, x) }
.
\end{aligned}

With $$t$$ plotted along the horizontal axis, and $$x$$ along the vertical, each of the terms of this integrand is illustrated graphically in fig. 5. For this mixed signature space, there is no longer any good geometrical characterization of the normal.

fig. 5. Orientation of the boundary normal for a spacetime basis.

• Spacelike:
Let $$x(u,v) = u \gamma_1 + v \gamma_2$$, where $$(\gamma_1)^2 = (\gamma_2)^2 = -1$$. With $$u = x, v = y$$, the gradient integral over a $$[x_0,x_1] \times [y_0,y_1]$$ of this space is
\label{eqn:unpackingFundamentalTheorem:920}
\begin{aligned}
&=
\int
\gamma^2 dx \lr{ G(x, y_1) – G(x, y_0) }
+
\gamma^1 dy \lr{ G(x_1, y) – G(x_1, y) } \\
&=
\int
\gamma_2 dx \lr{ -G(x, y_1) + G(x, y_0) }
+
\gamma_1 dy \lr{ -G(x_1, y) + G(x_1, y) }
.
\end{aligned}

Referring to fig. 6. where the elements of the integrand are illustrated, we see that the normal $$I^{-1} d\Bx$$ for the boundary of this region can be characterized as inwards.

fig. 6. Inwards oriented normal for a Dirac spacelike basis.

# References

[1] S.L. Salas and E. Hille. Calculus: one and several variables. Wiley New York, 1990.

## New version of classical mechanics notes

I’ve posted a new version of my classical mechanics notes compilation.  This version is not yet live on amazon, but you shouldn’t buy a copy of this “book” anyways, as it is horribly rough (if you want a copy, grab the free PDF instead.)  [I am going to buy a copy so that I can continue to edit a paper copy of it, but nobody else should.]

This version includes additional background material on Space Time Algebra (STA), i.e. the geometric algebra name for the Dirac/Clifford-algebra in 3+1 dimensions.  In particular, I’ve added material on reciprocal frames, the gradient and vector derivatives, line and surface integrals and the fundamental theorem for both.  Some of the integration theory content might make sense to move to a different book, but I’ll keep it with the rest of these STA notes for now.