## Helmholtz theorem

This is a problem from ece1228. I attempted solutions in a number of ways. One using Geometric Algebra, one devoid of that algebra, and then this method, which combined aspects of both. Of the three methods I tried to obtain this result, this is the most compact and elegant. It does however, require a fair bit of Geometric Algebra knowledge, including the Fundamental Theorem of Geometric Calculus, as detailed in [1], [3] and [2].

## Question: Helmholtz theorem

Prove the first Helmholtz’s theorem, i.e. if vector $$\BM$$ is defined by its divergence

\label{eqn:helmholtzDerviationMultivector:20}

and its curl
\label{eqn:helmholtzDerviationMultivector:40}

within a region and its normal component $$\BM_{\textrm{n}}$$ over the boundary, then $$\BM$$ is
uniquely specified.

The gradient of the vector $$\BM$$ can be written as a single even grade multivector

\label{eqn:helmholtzDerviationMultivector:60}
= s + I \BC.

We will use this to attempt to discover the relation between the vector $$\BM$$ and its divergence and curl. We can express $$\BM$$ at the point of interest as a convolution with the delta function at all other points in space

\label{eqn:helmholtzDerviationMultivector:80}
\BM(\Bx) = \int_V dV’ \delta(\Bx – \Bx’) \BM(\Bx’).

The Laplacian representation of the delta function in \R{3} is

\label{eqn:helmholtzDerviationMultivector:100}
\delta(\Bx – \Bx’) = -\inv{4\pi} \spacegrad^2 \inv{\Abs{\Bx – \Bx’}},

so $$\BM$$ can be represented as the following convolution

\label{eqn:helmholtzDerviationMultivector:120}
\BM(\Bx) = -\inv{4\pi} \int_V dV’ \spacegrad^2 \inv{\Abs{\Bx – \Bx’}} \BM(\Bx’).

Using this relation and proceeding with a few applications of the chain rule, plus the fact that $$\spacegrad 1/\Abs{\Bx – \Bx’} = -\spacegrad’ 1/\Abs{\Bx – \Bx’}$$, we find

\label{eqn:helmholtzDerviationMultivector:720}
\begin{aligned}
-4 \pi \BM(\Bx)
&= \int_V dV’ \spacegrad^2 \inv{\Abs{\Bx – \Bx’}} \BM(\Bx’) \\
} } \\
&=
\ncap \frac{\BM(\Bx’)}{\Abs{\Bx – \Bx’}}
}
\frac{s(\Bx’) + I\BC(\Bx’)}{\Abs{\Bx – \Bx’}}
} \\
&=
\ncap \frac{\BM(\Bx’)}{\Abs{\Bx – \Bx’}}
}
\frac{s(\Bx’)}{\Abs{\Bx – \Bx’}}
\frac{I\BC(\Bx’)}{\Abs{\Bx – \Bx’}}.
\end{aligned}

By inserting a no-op grade selection operation in the second step, the trivector terms that would show up in subsequent steps are automatically filtered out. This leaves us with a boundary term dependent on the surface and the normal and tangential components of $$\BM$$. Added to that is a pair of volume integrals that provide the unique dependence of $$\BM$$ on its divergence and curl. When the surface is taken to infinity, which requires $$\Abs{\BM}/\Abs{\Bx – \Bx’} \rightarrow 0$$, then the dependence of $$\BM$$ on its divergence and curl is unique.

In order to express final result in traditional vector algebra form, a couple transformations are required. The first is that

\label{eqn:helmholtzDerviationMultivector:800}
\gpgradeone{ \Ba I \Bb } = I^2 \Ba \cross \Bb = -\Ba \cross \Bb.

For the grade selection in the boundary integral, note that

\label{eqn:helmholtzDerviationMultivector:740}
\begin{aligned}
&=
+
&=
+
&=

\end{aligned}

These give

\label{eqn:helmholtzDerviationMultivector:721}
\boxed{
\begin{aligned}
\BM(\Bx)
&=
\spacegrad \inv{4\pi} \int_{\partial V} dA’ \ncap \cdot \frac{\BM(\Bx’)}{\Abs{\Bx – \Bx’}}

\spacegrad \cross \inv{4\pi} \int_{\partial V} dA’ \ncap \cross \frac{\BM(\Bx’)}{\Abs{\Bx – \Bx’}} \\
\frac{s(\Bx’)}{\Abs{\Bx – \Bx’}}
\frac{\BC(\Bx’)}{\Abs{\Bx – \Bx’}}.
\end{aligned}
}

# References

[1] C. Doran and A.N. Lasenby. Geometric algebra for physicists. Cambridge University Press New York, Cambridge, UK, 1st edition, 2003.

[2] A. Macdonald. Vector and Geometric Calculus. CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform, 2012.

[3] Garret Sobczyk and Omar Le’on S’anchez. Fundamental theorem of calculus. Advances in Applied Clifford Algebras, 21:221–231, 2011. URL http://arxiv.org/abs/0809.4526.

## Does the divergence and curl uniquely determine the vector?

A problem posed in the ece1228 problem set was the following

### Helmholtz theorem.

Prove the first Helmholtz’s theorem, i.e. if vector $$\BM$$ is defined by its divergence

\label{eqn:emtProblemSet1Problem5:20}

and its curl
\label{eqn:emtProblemSet1Problem5:40}

within a region and its normal component $$\BM_{\textrm{n}}$$ over the boundary, then $$\BM$$ is uniquely specified.

### Solution.

This problem screams for an attempt using Geometric Algebra techniques, since
the gradient of this vector can be written as a single even grade multivector

\label{eqn:emtProblemSet1Problem5AppendixGA:60}
\begin{aligned}
&= s + I \BC.
\end{aligned}

Observe that the Laplacian of $$\BM$$ is vector valued

\label{eqn:emtProblemSet1Problem5AppendixGA:400}

This means that $$\spacegrad \BC$$ must be a bivector $$\spacegrad \BC = \spacegrad \wedge \BC$$, or that $$\BC$$ has zero divergence

\label{eqn:emtProblemSet1Problem5AppendixGA:420}

This required constraint on $$\BC$$ will show up in subsequent analysis. An equivalent problem to the one posed
is to show that the even grade multivector equation $$\spacegrad \BM = s + I \BC$$ has an inverse given the constraint
specified by \ref{eqn:emtProblemSet1Problem5AppendixGA:420}.

The Green’s function for the gradient can be found in [1], where it is used to generalize the Cauchy integral equations to higher dimensions.

\label{eqn:emtProblemSet1Problem5AppendixGA:80}
\begin{aligned}
G(\Bx ; \Bx’) &= \inv{4 \pi} \frac{ \Bx – \Bx’ }{\Abs{\Bx – \Bx’}^3} \\
\end{aligned}

The inversion equation is an application of the Fundamental Theorem of (Geometric) Calculus, with the gradient operating bidirectionally on the Green’s function and the vector function

\label{eqn:emtProblemSet1Problem5AppendixGA:100}
\begin{aligned}
\oint_{\partial V} G(\Bx, \Bx’) d^2 \Bx’ \BM(\Bx’)
&=
\int_V G(\Bx, \Bx’) d^3 \Bx \lrspacegrad’ \BM(\Bx’) \\
&=
\int_V d^3 \Bx (G(\Bx, \Bx’) \lspacegrad’) \BM(\Bx’)
+
\int_V d^3 \Bx G(\Bx, \Bx’) (\spacegrad’ \BM(\Bx’)) \\
&=
-\int_V d^3 \Bx \delta(\Bx – \By) \BM(\Bx’)
+
\int_V d^3 \Bx G(\Bx, \Bx’) \lr{ s(\Bx’) + I \BC(\Bx’) } \\
&=
-I \BM(\Bx)
+
\inv{4 \pi} \int_V d^3 \Bx \frac{ \Bx – \Bx’}{ \Abs{\Bx – \Bx’}^3 } \lr{ s(\Bx’) + I \BC(\Bx’) }.
\end{aligned}

The integrals are in terms of the primed coordinates so that the end result is a function of $$\Bx$$. To rearrange for $$\BM$$, let $$d^3 \Bx’ = I dV’$$, and $$d^2 \Bx’ \ncap(\Bx’) = I dA’$$, then right multiply with the pseudoscalar $$I$$, noting that in \R{3} the pseudoscalar commutes with any grades

\label{eqn:emtProblemSet1Problem5AppendixGA:440}
\begin{aligned}
\BM(\Bx)
&=
I \oint_{\partial V} G(\Bx, \Bx’) I dA’ \ncap \BM(\Bx’)

I \inv{4 \pi} \int_V I dV’ \frac{ \Bx – \Bx’}{ \Abs{\Bx – \Bx’}^3 } \lr{ s(\Bx’) + I \BC(\Bx’) } \\
&=
-\oint_{\partial V} dA’ G(\Bx, \Bx’) \ncap \BM(\Bx’)
+
\inv{4 \pi} \int_V dV’ \frac{ \Bx – \Bx’}{ \Abs{\Bx – \Bx’}^3 } \lr{ s(\Bx’) + I \BC(\Bx’) }.
\end{aligned}

This can be decomposed into a vector and a trivector equation. Let $$\Br = \Bx – \Bx’ = r \rcap$$, and note that

\label{eqn:emtProblemSet1Problem5AppendixGA:500}
\begin{aligned}
&=
\gpgradeone{ I \rcap \BC } \\
&=
I \rcap \wedge \BC \\
&=
-\rcap \cross \BC,
\end{aligned}

so this pair of equations can be written as

\label{eqn:emtProblemSet1Problem5AppendixGA:520}
\begin{aligned}
\BM(\Bx)
&=
-\inv{4 \pi} \oint_{\partial V} dA’ \frac{\gpgradeone{ \rcap \ncap \BM(\Bx’) }}{r^2}
+
\inv{4 \pi} \int_V dV’ \lr{
\frac{\rcap}{r^2} s(\Bx’) –
\frac{\rcap}{r^2} \cross \BC(\Bx’) } \\
0
&=
-\inv{4 \pi} \oint_{\partial V} dA’ \frac{\rcap}{r^2} \wedge \ncap \wedge \BM(\Bx’)
+
\frac{I}{4 \pi} \int_V dV’ \frac{ \rcap \cdot \BC(\Bx’) }{r^2}.
\end{aligned}

Consider the last integral in the pseudoscalar equation above. Since we expect no pseudoscalar components, this must be zero, or cancel perfectly. It’s not obvious that this is the case, but a transformation to a surface integral shows the constraints required for that to be the case. To do so note

\label{eqn:emtProblemSet1Problem5AppendixGA:540}
\begin{aligned}
&= -\spacegrad’ \inv{\Bx – \Bx’} \\
&=
-\frac{\Bx – \Bx’}{\Abs{\Bx – \Bx’}^3} \\
&= -\frac{\rcap}{r^2}.
\end{aligned}

Using this and the chain rule we have

\label{eqn:emtProblemSet1Problem5AppendixGA:560}
\begin{aligned}
\frac{I}{4 \pi} \int_V dV’ \frac{ \rcap \cdot \BC(\Bx’) }{r^2}
&=
\frac{I}{4 \pi} \int_V dV’ \lr{ \spacegrad’ \inv{ r } } \cdot \BC(\Bx’) \\
&=
\frac{I}{4 \pi} \int_V dV’ \spacegrad’ \cdot \frac{\BC(\Bx’)}{r}

\frac{I}{4 \pi} \int_V dV’ \frac{ \spacegrad’ \cdot \BC(\Bx’) }{r} \\
&=
\frac{I}{4 \pi} \int_V dV’ \spacegrad’ \cdot \frac{\BC(\Bx’)}{r} \\
&=
\frac{I}{4 \pi} \int_{\partial V} dA’ \ncap(\Bx’) \cdot \frac{\BC(\Bx’)}{r}.
\end{aligned}

The divergence of $$\BC$$ above was killed by recalling the constraint \ref{eqn:emtProblemSet1Problem5AppendixGA:420}. This means that we can rewrite entirely as surface integral and eventually reduced to a single triple product

\label{eqn:emtProblemSet1Problem5AppendixGA:580}
\begin{aligned}
0
&=
-\frac{I}{4 \pi} \oint_{\partial V} dA’ \lr{
\frac{\rcap}{r^2} \cdot (\ncap \cross \BM(\Bx’))
-\ncap \cdot \frac{\BC(\Bx’)}{r}
} \\
&=
\frac{I}{4 \pi} \oint_{\partial V} dA’ \ncap \cdot \lr{
\frac{\rcap}{r^2} \cross \BM(\Bx’)
+ \frac{\BC(\Bx’)}{r}
} \\
&=
\frac{I}{4 \pi} \oint_{\partial V} dA’ \ncap \cdot \lr{
+ \frac{\BC(\Bx’)}{r}
} \\
&=
\frac{I}{4 \pi} \oint_{\partial V} dA’ \ncap \cdot \lr{
} \\
&=
\frac{I}{4 \pi} \oint_{\partial V} dA’
\frac{\BM(\Bx’) \cross \ncap}{r}
&=
\frac{I}{4 \pi} \oint_{\partial V} dA’
\frac{\BM(\Bx’) \cross \ncap}{r}.
\end{aligned}

### Final results.

Assembling things back into a single multivector equation, the complete inversion integral for $$\BM$$ is

\label{eqn:emtProblemSet1Problem5AppendixGA:600}
\BM(\Bx)
=
\inv{4 \pi} \oint_{\partial V} dA’
\lr{
\frac{\BM(\Bx’) \wedge \ncap}{r}
}
+
\inv{4 \pi} \int_V dV’ \lr{
\frac{\rcap}{r^2} s(\Bx’) –
\frac{\rcap}{r^2} \cross \BC(\Bx’) }.

This shows that vector $$\BM$$ can be recovered uniquely from $$s, \BC$$ when $$\Abs{\BM}/r^2$$ vanishes on an infinite surface. If we restrict attention to a finite surface, we have to add to the fixed solution a specific solution that depends on the value of $$\BM$$ on that surface. The vector portion of that surface integrand contains

\label{eqn:emtProblemSet1Problem5AppendixGA:640}
\begin{aligned}
&=
\rcap (\ncap \cdot \BM )
+
\rcap \cdot (\ncap \wedge \BM ) \\
&=
\rcap (\ncap \cdot \BM )
+
(\rcap \cdot \ncap) \BM

(\rcap \cdot \BM ) \ncap.
\end{aligned}

The constraints required by a zero triple product $$\spacegrad’ \cdot (\BM(\Bx’) \cross \ncap(\Bx’))$$ are complicated on a such a general finite surface. Consider instead, for simplicity, the case of a spherical surface, which can be analyzed more easily. In that case the outward normal of the surface centred on the test charge point $$\Bx$$ is $$\ncap = -\rcap$$. The pseudoscalar integrand is not generally killed unless the divergence of its tangential component on this surface is zero. One way that this can occur is for $$\BM \cross \ncap = 0$$, so that $$-\gpgradeone{ \rcap \ncap \BM } = \BM = (\BM \cdot \ncap) \ncap = \BM_{\textrm{n}}$$.

This gives

\label{eqn:emtProblemSet1Problem5AppendixGA:620}
\BM(\Bx)
=
\inv{4 \pi} \oint_{\Abs{\Bx – \Bx’} = r} dA’ \frac{\BM_{\textrm{n}}(\Bx’)}{r^2}
+
\inv{4 \pi} \int_V dV’ \lr{
\frac{\rcap}{r^2} s(\Bx’) +
\BC(\Bx’) \cross \frac{\rcap}{r^2} },

or, in terms of potential functions, which is arguably tidier

\label{eqn:emtProblemSet1Problem5AppendixGA:300}
\boxed{
\BM(\Bx)
=
\inv{4 \pi} \oint_{\Abs{\Bx – \Bx’} = r} dA’ \frac{\BM_{\textrm{n}}(\Bx’)}{r^2}
-\spacegrad \int_V dV’ \frac{ s(\Bx’)}{ 4 \pi r }
+\spacegrad \cross \int_V dV’ \frac{ \BC(\Bx’) }{ 4 \pi r }.
}

### Commentary

I attempted this problem in three different ways. My first approach (above) assembled the divergence and curl relations above into a single (Geometric Algebra) multivector gradient equation and applied the vector valued Green’s function for the gradient to invert that equation. That approach logically led from the differential equation for $$\BM$$ to the solution for $$\BM$$ in terms of $$s$$ and $$\BC$$. However, this strategy introduced some complexities that make me doubt the correctness of the associated boundary analysis.

Even if the details of the boundary handling in my multivector approach is not correct, I thought that approach was interesting enough to share.

# References

[1] C. Doran and A.N. Lasenby. Geometric algebra for physicists. Cambridge University Press New York, Cambridge, UK, 1st edition, 2003.

## Green’s function inversion of the magnetostatic equation

A previous example of inverting a gradient equation was the electrostatics equation. We can do the same for the magnetostatics equation, which has the following Geometric Algebra form in linear media

\label{eqn:biotSavartGreens:20}
\spacegrad I \BB = – \mu \BJ.

The Green’s inversion of this is
\label{eqn:biotSavartGreens:40}
\begin{aligned}
I \BB(\Bx)
&= \int_V dV’ G(\Bx, \Bx’) \spacegrad’ I \BB(\Bx’) \\
&= \int_V dV’ G(\Bx, \Bx’) (-\mu \BJ(\Bx’)) \\
&= \inv{4\pi} \int_V dV’ \frac{\Bx – \Bx’}{ \Abs{\Bx – \Bx’}^3 } (-\mu \BJ(\Bx’)).
\end{aligned}

We expect the LHS to be a bivector, so the scalar component of this should be zero. That can be demonstrated with some of the usual trickery
\label{eqn:biotSavartGreens:60}
\begin{aligned}
-\frac{\mu}{4\pi} \int_V dV’ \frac{\Bx – \Bx’}{ \Abs{\Bx – \Bx’}^3 } \cdot \BJ(\Bx’)
&= \frac{\mu}{4\pi} \int_V dV’ \lr{ \spacegrad \inv{ \Abs{\Bx – \Bx’} }} \cdot \BJ(\Bx’) \\
&= -\frac{\mu}{4\pi} \int_V dV’ \lr{ \spacegrad’ \inv{ \Abs{\Bx – \Bx’} }} \cdot \BJ(\Bx’) \\
&= -\frac{\mu}{4\pi} \int_V dV’ \lr{
\spacegrad’ \cdot \frac{\BJ(\Bx’)}{ \Abs{\Bx – \Bx’} }

\frac{\spacegrad’ \cdot \BJ(\Bx’)}{ \Abs{\Bx – \Bx’} }
}.
\end{aligned}

The current $$\BJ$$ is not unconstrained. This can be seen by premultiplying \ref{eqn:biotSavartGreens:20} by the gradient

\label{eqn:biotSavartGreens:80}

On the LHS we have a bivector so must have $$\spacegrad \BJ = \spacegrad \wedge \BJ$$, or $$\spacegrad \cdot \BJ = 0$$. This kills the $$\spacegrad’ \cdot \BJ(\Bx’)$$ integrand numerator in \ref{eqn:biotSavartGreens:60}, leaving

\label{eqn:biotSavartGreens:100}
\begin{aligned}
-\frac{\mu}{4\pi} \int_V dV’ \frac{\Bx – \Bx’}{ \Abs{\Bx – \Bx’}^3 } \cdot \BJ(\Bx’)
&= -\frac{\mu}{4\pi} \int_V dV’ \spacegrad’ \cdot \frac{\BJ(\Bx’)}{ \Abs{\Bx – \Bx’} } \\
&= -\frac{\mu}{4\pi} \int_{\partial V} dA’ \ncap \cdot \frac{\BJ(\Bx’)}{ \Abs{\Bx – \Bx’} }.
\end{aligned}

This shows that the scalar part of the equation is zero, provided the normal component of $$\BJ/\Abs{\Bx – \Bx’}$$ vanishes on the boundary of the infinite sphere. This leaves the Biot-Savart law as a bivector equation

\label{eqn:biotSavartGreens:120}
I \BB(\Bx)
= \frac{\mu}{4\pi} \int_V dV’ \BJ(\Bx’) \wedge \frac{\Bx – \Bx’}{ \Abs{\Bx – \Bx’}^3 }.

Observe that the traditional vector form of the Biot-Savart law can be obtained by premultiplying both sides with $$-I$$, leaving

\label{eqn:biotSavartGreens:140}
\BB(\Bx)
= \frac{\mu}{4\pi} \int_V dV’ \BJ(\Bx’) \cross \frac{\Bx – \Bx’}{ \Abs{\Bx – \Bx’}^3 }.

This checks against a trusted source such as [1] (eq. 5.39).

# References

[1] David Jeffrey Griffiths and Reed College. Introduction to electrodynamics. Prentice hall Upper Saddle River, NJ, 3rd edition, 1999.

## Green’s function for the gradient in Euclidean spaces.

In [1] it is stated that the Green’s function for the gradient is

G(x, x’) = \inv{S_n} \frac{x – x’}{\Abs{x-x’}^n},

where $$n$$ is the dimension of the space, $$S_n$$ is the area of the unit sphere, and

What I’d like to do here is verify that this Green’s function operates as asserted. Here, as in some parts of the text, I am following a convention where vectors are written without boldface.

Let’s start with checking that the gradient of the Green’s function is zero everywhere that $$x \ne x’$$

\begin{aligned}
&=
-\frac{n}{2} \frac{e^\nu \partial_\nu (x_\mu – x_\mu’)(x^\mu – {x^\mu}’)}{\Abs{x – x’}^{n+2}} \\
&=
-\frac{n}{2} 2 \frac{e^\nu (x_\mu – x_\mu’) \delta_\nu^\mu }{\Abs{x – x’}^{n+2}} \\
&=
-n \frac{ x – x’}{\Abs{x – x’}^{n+2}}.
\end{aligned}

This means that we have, everywhere that $$x \ne x’$$

\begin{aligned}
&=
\inv{S_n} \lr{ \frac{\spacegrad \cdot \lr{x – x’}}{\Abs{x – x’}^{n}} + \lr{ \spacegrad \inv{\Abs{x – x’}^{n}} } \cdot \lr{ x – x’} } \\
&=
\inv{S_n} \lr{ \frac{n}{\Abs{x – x’}^{n}} + \lr{ -n \frac{x – x’}{\Abs{x – x’}^{n+2} } \cdot \lr{ x – x’} } } \\
= 0.
\end{aligned}

Next, consider the curl of the Green’s function. Zero curl will mean that we have $$\grad G = \grad \cdot G = G \lgrad$$.

\begin{aligned}
&=
+
\grad \inv{\Abs{x – x’}^{n}} \wedge (x-x’) \\
&=
– n
\frac{x – x’}{\Abs{x – x’}^{n}} \wedge (x-x’) \\
&=
\end{aligned}

However,

\begin{aligned}
&=
&=
e^\mu \wedge e_\nu \partial_\mu x^\nu \\
&=
e^\mu \wedge e_\nu \delta_\mu^\nu \\
&=
e^\mu \wedge e_\mu.
\end{aligned}

For any metric where $$e_\mu \propto e^\mu$$, which is the case in all the ones with physical interest (i.e. \R{3} and Minkowski space), $$\grad \wedge G$$ is zero.

Having shown that the gradient of the (presumed) Green’s function is zero everywhere that $$x \ne x’$$, the guts of the
demonstration can now proceed. We wish to evaluate the gradient weighted convolution of the Green’s function using the Fundamental Theorem of (Geometric) Calculus. Here the gradient acts bidirectionally on both the gradient and the test function. Working in primed coordinates so that the final result is in terms of the unprimed, we have

\int_V G(x,x’) d^n x’ \lrgrad’ F(x’)
= \int_{\partial V} G(x,x’) d^{n-1} x’ F(x’).

Let $$d^n x’ = dV’ I$$, $$d^{n-1} x’ n = dA’ I$$, where $$n = n(x’)$$ is the outward normal to the area element $$d^{n-1} x’$$. From this point on, lets restrict attention to Euclidean spaces, where $$n^2 = 1$$. In that case

\begin{aligned}
&=
+
\int_V dV’ G(x,x’) \lr{ \rgrad’ F(x’) } \\
&= \int_{\partial V} dA’ G(x,x’) n F(x’).
\end{aligned}

Here, the pseudoscalar $$I$$ has been factored out by commuting it with $$G$$, using $$G I = (-1)^{n-1} I G$$, and then pre-multiplication with $$1/((-1)^{n-1} I )$$.

Each of these integrals can be considered in sequence. A convergence bound is required of the multivector test function $$F(x’)$$ on the infinite surface $$\partial V$$. Since it’s true that

\Abs{ \int_{\partial V} dA’ G(x,x’) n F(x’) }
\ge
\int_{\partial V} dA’ \Abs{ G(x,x’) n F(x’) },

then it is sufficient to require that

\lim_{x’ \rightarrow \infty} \Abs{ \frac{x -x’}{\Abs{x – x’}^n} n(x’) F(x’) } \rightarrow 0,

in order to kill off the surface integral. Evaluating the integral on a hypersphere centred on $$x$$ where $$x’ – x = n \Abs{x – x’}$$, that is

\lim_{x’ \rightarrow \infty} \frac{ \Abs{F(x’)}}{\Abs{x – x’}^{n-1}} \rightarrow 0.

Given such a constraint, that leaves

=
-\int_V dV’ G(x,x’) \lr{ \rgrad’ F(x’) }.

The LHS is zero everywhere that $$x \ne x’$$ so it can be restricted to a spherical ball around $$x$$, which allows the test function $$F$$ to be pulled out of the integral, and a second application of the Fundamental Theorem to be applied.

\begin{aligned}
&=
\lim_{\epsilon \rightarrow 0}
\int_{\Abs{x – x’} < \epsilon} dV' \lr{G(x,x') \lgrad'} F(x') \\ &= \lr{ \lim_{\epsilon \rightarrow 0} I^{-1} \int_{\Abs{x - x'} < \epsilon} I dV' \lr{G(x,x') \lgrad'} } F(x) \\ &= \lr{ \lim_{\epsilon \rightarrow 0} (-1)^{n-1} I^{-1} \int_{\Abs{x - x'} < \epsilon} G(x,x') d^n x' \lgrad' } F(x) \\ &= \lr{ \lim_{\epsilon \rightarrow 0} (-1)^{n-1} I^{-1} \int_{\Abs{x - x'} = \epsilon} G(x,x') d^{n-1} x' } F(x) \\ &= \lr{ \lim_{\epsilon \rightarrow 0} (-1)^{n-1} I^{-1} \int_{\Abs{x - x'} = \epsilon} G(x,x') dA' I n } F(x) \\ &= \lr{ \lim_{\epsilon \rightarrow 0} \int_{\Abs{x - x'} = \epsilon} dA' G(x,x') n } F(x) \\ &= \lr{ \lim_{\epsilon \rightarrow 0} \int_{\Abs{x - x'} = \epsilon} dA' \frac{\epsilon (-n)}{S_n \epsilon^n} n } F(x) \\ &= -\lim_{\epsilon \rightarrow 0} \frac{F(x)}{S_n \epsilon^{n-1}} \int_{\Abs{x - x'} = \epsilon} dA' \\ &= -\lim_{\epsilon \rightarrow 0} \frac{F(x)}{S_n \epsilon^{n-1}} S_n \epsilon^{n-1} \\ &= -F(x). \end{aligned} This essentially calculates the divergence integral around an infinitesimal hypersphere, without assuming that the gradient commutes with the gradient in this infinitesimal region. So, provided the test function is constrained by \ref{eqn:gradientGreensFunction:260}, we have $$\label{eqn:gradientGreensFunction:280} F(x) = \int_V dV' G(x,x') \lr{ \grad' F(x') }.$$ In particular, should we have a first order gradient equation $$\label{eqn:gradientGreensFunction:300} \spacegrad' F(x') = M(x'),$$ the inverse of this equation is given by $$\label{eqn:gradientGreensFunction:320} \boxed{ F(x) = \int_V dV' G(x,x') M(x'). }$$ Note that the sign of the Green's function is explicitly tied to the definition of the convolution integral that is used. This is important since since the conventions for the sign of the Green's function or the parameters in the convolution integral often vary. What's cool about this result is that it applies not only to gradient equations in Euclidean spaces, but also to multivector (or even just vector) fields $$F$$, instead of the usual scalar functions that we usually apply Green's functions to.

## Example: Electrostatics

As a check of the sign consider the electrostatics equation

for which we have after substitution into \ref{eqn:gradientGreensFunction:320}
\BE(\Bx) = \inv{4 \pi \epsilon_0} \int_V dV’ \frac{\Bx – \Bx’}{\Abs{\Bx – \Bx’}^3} \rho(\Bx’).

This matches the sign found in a trusted reference such as [2].

### Future thought.

Does this Green’s function also work for mixed metric spaces? If so, in such a metric, what does it mean to
calculate the surface area of a unit sphere in a mixed signature space?

# References

[1] C. Doran and A.N. Lasenby. Geometric algebra for physicists. Cambridge University Press New York, Cambridge, UK, 1st edition, 2003.

[2] JD Jackson. Classical Electrodynamics. John Wiley and Sons, 2nd edition, 1975.

## Updated notes for ece1229 antenna theory

I’ve now posted a first update of my notes for the antenna theory course that I am taking this term at UofT.

Unlike most of the other classes I have taken, I am not attempting to take comprehensive notes for this class. The class is taught on slides which go by faster than I can easily take notes for (and some of which match the textbook closely). In class I have annotated my copy of textbook with little details instead. This set of notes contains musings of details that were unclear, or in some cases, details that were provided in class, but are not in the text (and too long to pencil into my book), as well as some notes Geometric Algebra formalism for Maxwell’s equations with magnetic sources (something I’ve encountered for the first time in any real detail in this class).

The notes compilation linked above includes all of the following separate notes, some of which have been posted separately on this blog:

## Notes for ece1229 antenna theory

I’ve now posted a first set of notes for the antenna theory course that I am taking this term at UofT.

Unlike most of the other classes I have taken, I am not attempting to take comprehensive notes for this class. The class is taught on slides that match the textbook so closely, there is little value to me taking notes that just replicate the text. Instead, I am annotating my copy of textbook with little details instead. My usual notes collection for the class will contain musings of details that were unclear, or in some cases, details that were provided in class, but are not in the text (and too long to pencil into my book.)

• Reading notes for chapter 2 (Fundamental Parameters of Antennas) and chapter 3 (Radiation Integrals and Auxiliary Potential Functions) of the class text.
• Geometric Algebra musings.  How to do formulate Maxwell’s equations when magnetic sources are also included (those modeling magnetic dipoles).
• Some problems for chapter 2 content.

## Maxwell’s equations review (plus magnetic sources and currents)

These are notes for the UofT course ECE1229, Advanced Antenna Theory, taught by Prof. Eleftheriades, covering ch. 3 [1] content.

Unlike most of the other classes I have taken, I am not attempting to take comprehensive notes for this class. The class is taught on slides that match the textbook so closely, there is little value to me taking notes that just replicate the text. Instead, I am annotating my copy of textbook with little details instead. My usual notes collection for the class will contain musings of details that were unclear, or in some cases, details that were provided in class, but are not in the text (and too long to pencil into my book.)

## Maxwell’s equation review

For reasons that are yet to be seen (and justified), we work with a generalization of Maxwell’s equations to include
electric AND magnetic charge densities.

\label{eqn:chapter3Notes:20}
\spacegrad \cross \boldsymbol{\mathcal{E}} = – \boldsymbol{\mathcal{M}} – \PD{t}{\boldsymbol{\mathcal{B}}}

\label{eqn:chapter3Notes:40}
\spacegrad \cross \boldsymbol{\mathcal{H}} = \boldsymbol{\mathcal{J}} + \PD{t}{\boldsymbol{\mathcal{D}}}

\label{eqn:chapter3Notes:60}

\label{eqn:chapter3Notes:80}

Assuming a phasor relationships of the form $$\boldsymbol{\mathcal{E}} = \text{Real} \lr{ \BE(\Br) e^{j \omega t}}$$ for the fields and the currents, these reduce to

\label{eqn:chapter3Notes:100}
\spacegrad \cross \BE = – \BM – j \omega \BB

\label{eqn:chapter3Notes:120}
\spacegrad \cross \BH = \BJ + j \omega \BD

\label{eqn:chapter3Notes:140}

\label{eqn:chapter3Notes:160}

In engineering the fields

• $$\BE$$ : Electric field intensity (V/m, Volts/meter).
• $$\BH$$ : Magnetic field intensity (A/m, Amperes/meter).

are designated primary fields, whereas

• $$\BD$$ : Electric flux density (or displacement vector) (C/m, {Coulombs/meter).
• $$\BB$$ : Magnetic flux density (W/m, Webers/meter).

are designated the induced fields. The currents and charges are

• $$\BJ$$ : Electric current density (A/m).
• $$\BM$$ : Magnetic current density (V/m).
• $$\rho$$ : Electric charge density (C/m^3).
• $$\rho_m$$ : Magnetic charge density (W/m^3).

Because $$\spacegrad \cdot \lr{ \spacegrad \cross \Bf } = 0$$ for any
(sufficiently continuous) vector $$\Bf$$, divergence relations between the
currents and the charges follow from \ref{eqn:chapter3Notes:100}…

\label{eqn:chapter3Notes:180}
0
= -\spacegrad \cdot \BM – j \omega \rho_m,

and

\label{eqn:chapter3Notes:200}
0
= \spacegrad \cdot \BJ + j \omega \rho,

These are the phasor forms of the continuity equations

\label{eqn:chapter3Notes:220}
\spacegrad \cdot \BM = – j \omega \rho_m

\label{eqn:chapter3Notes:240}
\spacegrad \cdot \BJ = -j \omega \rho.

### Integral forms

The integral forms of Maxwell’s equations follow from Stokes’ theorem and the divergence theorems. Stokes’ theorem is a relation between the integral of the curl and the outwards normal differential area element of a surface, to the boundary of that surface, and applies to any surface with that boundary

\label{eqn:chapter3Notes:260}
\iint
= \oint \Bf \cdot d\Bl.

The divergence theorem, a special case of the general Stokes’ theorem is

\label{eqn:chapter3Notes:280}
= \iint_{\partial V} \Bf \cdot d\BA,

where the integral is over the surface of the volume, and the area element of the bounding integral has an outwards normal orientation.

See [5] for a derivation of this and various generalizations.

Applying these to Maxwell’s equations gives

\label{eqn:chapter3Notes:320}
\oint d\Bl \cdot \BE = –
\iint d\BA \cdot \lr{
\BM + j \omega \BB
}

\label{eqn:chapter3Notes:340}
\oint d\Bl \cdot \BH =
\iint d\BA \cdot \lr{
\BJ + j \omega \BD
}

\label{eqn:chapter3Notes:360}
\iint_{\partial V} d\BA \cdot \BD = \iiint \rho dV

\label{eqn:chapter3Notes:380}
\iint_{\partial V} d\BA \cdot \BB = \iiint \rho_m dV

## Constitutive relations

For linear isotropic homogeneous materials, the following constitutive relations apply

• $$\BD = \epsilon \BE$$
• $$\BB = \mu \BH$$
• $$\BJ = \sigma \BE$$, Ohm’s law.

where

• $$\epsilon = \epsilon_r \epsilon_0$$, is the permutivity (F/m, Farads/meter ).
• $$\mu = \mu_r \mu_0$$, is the permeability (H/m, Henries/meter), $$\mu_0 = 4 \pi \times 10^{-7}$$.
• $$\sigma$$, is the conductivity ($$\inv{\Omega m}$$, where $$1/\Omega$$ is a Siemens.)

In AM radio, will see ferrite cores with the inductors, which introduces non-unit $$\mu_r$$. This is to increase the radiation resistance.

## Boundary conditions

For good electric conductor $$\BE = 0$$.
For good magnetic conductor $$\BB = 0$$.

(more on class slides)

## Linear time invariant

Linear time invariant meant that the impulse response $$h(t,t’)$$ was a function of just the difference in times $$h(t,t’) = h(t-t’)$$.

## Green’s functions

For electromagnetic problems the impulse function sources $$\delta(\Br – \Br’)$$ also has a direction, and can yield any of $$E_x, E_y, E_z$$. A tensor impulse response is required.

Some overview of an approach that uses such tensor Green’s functions is outlined on the slides. It gets really messy since we require four tensor Green’s functions to handle electric and magnetic current and charges. Because of this complexity, we don’t go down this path, and use potentials instead.

In \S 3.5 [1] and the class notes, a verification of the spherical wave form for the Helmholtz Green’s function was developed. This was much simpler than the same verification I did in [4]. Part of the reason for that was that I worked in Cartesian coordinates, which made things much messier. The other part of the reason, for treating a neighbourhood of $$\Abs{\Br – \Br’} \sim 0$$, I verified the convolution, whereas Prof. Eleftheriades argues that a verification that $$\int \lr{\spacegrad^2 + k^2} G(\Br, \Br’) dV’ = 1$$ is sufficient. Balanis, on the other hand, argues that knowing the solution for $$k \ne 0$$ must just be the solution for $$k = 0$$ (i.e. the Poisson solution) provided it is multiplied by the $$e^{-j k r}$$ factor.

Note that back when I did that derivation, I used a different sign convention for the Green’s function, and in QM we used a positive sign instead of the negative in $$e^{-j k r }$$.

## Notation

• Phasor frequency terms are written as $$e^{j \omega t}$$, not $$e^{-j \omega t}$$, as done in physics. I didn’t recall that this was always the case in physics, and wouldn’t have assumed it. This is the case in both [3] and [2]. The latter however, also uses $$\cos(\omega t – k r)$$ for spherical waves possibly implying an alternate phasor sign convention in that content, so I’d be wary about trusting any absolute “engineering” vs. physics sign convention without checking carefully.
• In Green’s functions $$G(\Br, \Br’)$$, $$\Br$$ is the point of observation, and $$\Br’$$ is the point in the convolution integration space.
• Both $$\BM$$ and $$\BJ_m$$ are used for magnetic current sources in the class notes.

# References

[1] Constantine A Balanis. Antenna theory: analysis and design. John Wiley \& Sons, 3rd edition, 2005.

[2] David Jeffrey Griffiths and Reed College. Introduction to electrodynamics, chapter {Electromagnetic Waves}. Prentice hall Upper Saddle River, NJ, 3rd edition, 1999.

[3] JD Jackson. Classical Electrodynamics, chapter {Simple Radiating Systems, Scattering, and Diffraction}. John Wiley and Sons, 2nd edition, 1975.

[4] Peeter Joot. Quantum Mechanics II., chapter {Verifying the Helmholtz Green’s function.} peeterjoot.com, 2011. URL http://peeterjoot.com/archives/math2011/phy456.pdf. [Online; accessed 28-January-2015].

[5] Peeter Joot. Exploring physics with Geometric Algebra, chapter {Stokes theorem}. peeterjoot.com, 2014. URL http://peeterjoot.com/archives/math2009/gabook.pdf. [Online; accessed 28-January-2015].