## Disclaimer

Peeter’s lecture notes from class. These may be incoherent and rough.

These are notes for the UofT course ECE1505H, Convex Optimization, taught by Prof. Stark Draper, from [1].

## Last time

• examples of sets: planes, half spaces, balls, ellipses, cone of positive semi-definite matrices
• generalized inequalities
• examples of convexity preserving operations

## Today

• more examples of convexity preserving operations
• separating and supporting hyperplanes
• basic definitions of convex functions
• epigraphs, quasi-convexity, sublevel sets
• first and second order conditions for convexity of differentiable functions.

## Operations that preserve convexity

If $$S_\alpha$$ is convex $$\forall \alpha \in A$$, then

\label{eqn:convexOptimizationLecture5:40}
\cup_{\alpha \in A} S_\alpha,

is convex.

Example:

\label{eqn:convexOptimizationLecture5:60}
F(\Bx) = A \Bx + \Bb

\label{eqn:convexOptimizationLecture5:80}
\begin{aligned}
\Bx &\in \mathbb{R}^n \\
A &\in \mathbb{R}^{m \times n} \\
F &: \mathbb{R}^{n} \rightarrow \mathbb{R}^m \\
\Bb &\in \mathbb{R}^m
\end{aligned}

1. If $$S \in \mathbb{R}^n$$ is convex, then\label{eqn:convexOptimizationLecture5:100}
F(S) = \setlr{ F(\Bx) | \Bx \in S }
is convex if $$F$$ is affine.
2. If $$S \in \mathbb{R}^m$$ is convex, then\label{eqn:convexOptimizationLecture5:120}
F^{-1}(S) = \setlr{ \Bx | F(\Bx) \in S }

is convex.

Example:

\label{eqn:convexOptimizationLecture5:140}
\setlr{ \By | \By = A \Bx + \Bb, \Norm{\Bx} \le 1}

is convex. Here $$A \Bx + \Bb$$ is an affine function ($$F(\Bx)$$. This is the image of a (convex) unit ball, through an affine map.

Earlier saw when defining ellipses

\label{eqn:convexOptimizationLecture5:160}
\By = P^{1/2} \Bx + \Bx_c

Example :

\label{eqn:convexOptimizationLecture5:180}
\setlr{ \Bx | \Norm{ A \Bx + \Bb } \le 1 },

is convex. This can be seen by writing

\label{eqn:convexOptimizationLecture5:200}
\begin{aligned}
\setlr{ \Bx | \Norm{ A \Bx + \Bb } \le 1 }
&=
\setlr{ \Bx | \Norm{ F(\Bx) } \le 1 } \\
&=
\setlr{ \Bx | F(\Bx) \in \mathcal{B} },
\end{aligned}

where $$\mathcal{B} = \setlr{ \By | \Norm{\By} \le 1 }$$. This is the pre-image (under $$F()$$) of a unit norm ball.

Example:

\label{eqn:convexOptimizationLecture5:220}
\setlr{ \Bx \in \mathbb{R}^n | x_1 A_1 + x_2 A_2 + \cdots x_n A_n \le \mathcal{B} }

where $$A_i \in S^m$$ and $$\mathcal{B} \in S^m$$, and the inequality is a matrix inequality. This is a convex set. The constraint is a “linear matrix inequality” (LMI).

This has to do with an affine map:

\label{eqn:convexOptimizationLecture5:240}
F(\Bx) = B – 1 x_1 A_1 – x_2 A_2 – \cdots x_n A_n \ge 0

(positive semi-definite inequality). This is a mapping

\label{eqn:convexOptimizationLecture5:480}
F : \mathbb{R}^n \rightarrow S^m,

since all $$A_i$$ and $$B$$ are in $$S^m$$.

This $$F(\Bx) = B – A(\Bx)$$ is a constant and a factor linear in x, so is affine. Can be written

\label{eqn:convexOptimizationLecture5:260}
\setlr{ \Bx | B – A(\Bx) \ge 0 }
=
\setlr{ \Bx | B – A(\Bx) \in S^m_{+} }

This is a pre-image of a cone of PSD matrices, which is convex. Therefore, this is a convex set.

## Separating hyperplanes

Theorem: Separating hyperplanes

If $$S, T \subseteq \mathbb{R}^n$$ are convex and disjoint
i.e. $$S \cup T = 0$$, then
there exists on $$\Ba \in \mathbb{R}^n$$ $$\Ba \ne 0$$ and a $$\Bb \in \mathbb{R}^n$$ such that

\begin{equation*}
\Ba^\T \Bx \ge \Bb \, \forall \Bx \in S
\end{equation*}

and
\begin{equation*}
\Ba^\T \Bx < \Bb \,\forall \Bx \in T.
\end{equation*}

An example of a hyperplanes that separates two sets and two sets that are not separable is sketched in fig 1.1

Proof in the book.

Theorem: Supporting hyperplane
If $$S$$ is convex then $$\forall x_0 \in \partial S = \textrm{cl}(S) \ \textrm{int}(S)$$, where
$$\partial S$$ is the boundary of $$S$$, then $$\exists$$ an $$\Ba \ne 0 \in \mathbb{R}^n$$ such that $$\Ba^\T \Bx \le \Ba^\T x_0 \, \forall \Bx \in S$$.

Here $$\$$ denotes “without”.

An example is sketched in fig. 3, for which

fig. 3. Supporting hyperplane.

• The vector $$\Ba$$ perpendicular to tangent plane.
• inner product $$\Ba^\T (\Bx – \Bx_0) \le 0$$.

A set with a supporting hyperplane is sketched in fig 4a whereas fig 4b shows that there is not necessarily a unique supporting hyperplane at any given point, even if $$S$$ is convex.

fig 4a. Set with supporting hyperplane.

fig 4b. No unique supporting hyperplane possible.

## basic definitions of convex functions

Theorem: Convex functions
If $$F : \mathbb{R}^n \rightarrow \mathbb{R}$$ is defined on a convex domain (i.e. $$\textrm{dom} F \subseteq \mathbb{R}^n$$ is a convex set), then $$F$$ is convex if $$\forall \Bx, \By \in \textrm{dom} F$$, $$\forall \theta \in [0,1] \in \mathbb{R}$$

\label{eqn:convexOptimizationLecture5:340}
F( \theta \Bx + (1-\theta) \By \le \theta F(\Bx) + (1-\theta) F(\By)

An example is sketched in fig. 5.

fig. 5. Example of convex function.

Remarks

• Require $$\textrm{dom} F$$ to be a convex set. This is required so that the function at the point $$\theta u + (1-\theta) v$$ can be evaluated. i.e. so that $$F(\theta u + (1-\theta) v)$$ is well defined. Example: $$\textrm{dom} F = (-\infty, 0] \cup [1, \infty)$$ is not okay, because a linear combination in $$(0,1)$$ would be undesirable.
• Parameter $$\theta$$ is “how much up” the line segment connecting $$(u, F(u)$$ and $$(v, F(v)$$. This line segment never below the bottom of the bowl.
The function is \underlineAndIndex{concave}, if $$-F$$ is convex.
i.e. If the convex function is flipped upside down. That is\label{eqn:convexOptimizationLecture5:360}
F(\theta \Bx + (1-\theta) \By ) \ge \theta F(\Bx) + (1-\theta) F(\By) \,\forall \Bx,\By \in \textrm{dom} F, \theta \in [0,1].
• a “strictly” convex function means $$\forall \theta \in [0,1]$$\label{eqn:convexOptimizationLecture5:380}
F(\theta \Bx + (1-\theta) \By ) < \theta F(\Bx) + (1-theta) F(\By).
• Strictly concave function $$F$$ means $$-F$$ is strictly convex.
• Examples:\imageFigure{../figures/ece1505-convex-optimization/l5Fig6a}{}{fig:l5:l5Fig6a}{0.2}

fig 6a. Not convex or concave.

fig 6b. Not strictly convex

Definition: Epigraph of a function

The epigraph $$\textrm{epi} F$$ of a function $$F : \mathbb{R}^n \rightarrow \mathbb{R}$$ is

\begin{equation*}
\textrm{epi} F = \setlr{ (\Bx,t) \in \mathbb{R}^{n +1} | \Bx \in \textrm{dom} F, t \ge F(\Bx) },
\end{equation*}

where $$\Bx \in \mathbb{R}^n, t \in \mathbb{R}$$.

fig. 7. Epigraph.

Theorem: Convexity and epigraph.
If $$F$$ is convex implies $$\textrm{epi} F$$ is a convex set.

Proof:

For convex function, a line segment connecting any 2 points on function is above the function. i.e. it is $$\textrm{epi} F$$.

Many authors will go the other way around, showing \ref{dfn:convexOptimizationLecture5:400} from \ref{thm:convexOptimizationLecture5:420}. That is:

Pick any 2 points in $$\textrm{epi} F$$, $$(\Bx,\mu) \in \textrm{epi} F$$ and $$(\By, \nu) \in \textrm{epi} F$$. Consider convex combination

\label{eqn:convexOptimizationLecture5:420}
\theta( \Bx, \mu ) + (1-\theta) (\By, \nu) =
(\theta \Bx (1-\theta) \By, \theta \mu (1-\theta) \nu )
\in \textrm{epi} F,

since $$\textrm{epi} F$$ is a convex set.

By definition of $$\textrm{epi} F$$

\label{eqn:convexOptimizationLecture5:440}
F( \theta \Bx (1-\theta) \By ) \le \theta \mu (1-\theta) \nu.

Picking $$\mu = F(\Bx), \nu = F(\By)$$ gives
\label{eqn:convexOptimizationLecture5:460}
F( \theta \Bx (1-\theta) \By ) \le \theta F(\Bx) (1-\theta) F(\By).

## Extended value function

Sometimes convenient to work with “extended value function”

\label{eqn:convexOptimizationLecture5:500}
\tilde{F}(\Bx) =
\left\{
\begin{array}{l l}
F(\Bx) & \quad \mbox{If $$\Bx \in \textrm{dom} F$$} \\
\end{array}
\right.

Examples:

• Linear (affine) functions (fig. 8) are both convex and concave.

fig. 8. Linear functions.

• $$x^2$$ is convex, sketched in fig. 9.

• $$\log x, \textrm{dom} F = \mathbb{R}_{+}$$ concave, sketched in fig. 10.

fig. 10. Concave (logarithm.)

• $$\Norm{\Bx}$$ is convex. $$\Norm{ \theta \Bx + (1-\theta) \By } \le \theta \Norm{ \Bx } + (1-\theta) \Norm{\By }$$.
• $$1/x$$ is convex on $$\setlr{ x | x > 0 } = \textrm{dom} F$$, and concave on $$\setlr{ x | x < 0 } = \textrm{dom} F$$. \label{eqn:convexOptimizationLecture5:520} \tilde{F}(x) = \left\{ \begin{array}{l l} \inv{x} & \quad \mbox{If $$x > 0$$} \\
\end{array}
\right.

Definition: Sublevel

The sublevel set of a function $$F : \mathbb{R}^n \rightarrow \mathbb{R}$$ is

\begin{equation*}
C(\alpha) = \setlr{ \Bx \in \textrm{dom} F | F(\Bx) \le \alpha }
\end{equation*}

Convex sublevel

Non-convex sublevel.

Theorem:
If $$F$$ is convex then $$C(\alpha)$$ is a convex set $$\forall \alpha$$.

This is not an if and only if condition, as illustrated in fig. 12.

fig. 12. Convex sublevel does not imply convexity.

There $$C(\alpha)$$ is convex, but the function itself is not.

Proof:

Since $$F$$ is convex, then $$\textrm{epi} F$$ is a convex set.

• Let\label{eqn:convexOptimizationLecture5:580}
\mathcal{A} = \setlr{ (\Bx,t) | t = \alpha }
is a convex set.
• $$\mathcal{A} \cap \textrm{epi} F$$is a convex set since it is the intersection of convex sets.
• Project $$\mathcal{A} \cap \textrm{epi} F$$ onto \R{n} (i.e. domain of $$F$$ ). The projection is an affine mapping. Image of a convex set through affine mapping is a convex set.

Definition: Quasi-convex.

A function is quasi-convex if \underline{all} of its sublevel sets are convex.

## Composing convex functions

Properties of convex functions:

• If $$F$$ is convex, then $$\alpha F$$ is convex $$\forall \alpha > 0$$.
• If $$F_1, F_2$$ are convex, then the sum $$F_1 + F_2$$ is convex.
• If $$F$$ is convex, then $$g(\Bx) = F(A \Bx + \Bb)$$ is convex $$\forall \Bx \in \setlr{ \Bx | A \Bx + \Bb \in \textrm{dom} F }$$.

Note: for the last

\label{eqn:convexOptimizationLecture5:620}
\begin{aligned}
g &: \mathbb{R}^m \rightarrow \mathbb{R} \\
F &: \mathbb{R}^n \rightarrow \mathbb{R} \\
\Bx &\in \mathbb{R}^m \\
A &\in \mathbb{R}^{n \times m} \\
\Bb &\in \mathbb{R}^n
\end{aligned}

Proof (of last):

\label{eqn:convexOptimizationLecture5:640}
\begin{aligned}
g( \theta \Bx + (1-\theta) \By )
&=
F( \theta (A \Bx + \Bb) + (1-\theta) (A \By + \Bb) ) \\
&\le
\theta F( A \Bx + \Bb) + (1-\theta) F (A \By + \Bb) \\
&= \theta g(\Bx) + (1-\theta) g(\By).
\end{aligned}

# References

[1] Stephen Boyd and Lieven Vandenberghe. Convex optimization. Cambridge university press, 2004.