## A multivector Lagrangian for Maxwell’s equation: A summary of previous exploration.

This summarizes the significant parts of the last 8 blog posts.

## STA form of Maxwell’s equation.

Maxwell’s equations, with electric and fictional magnetic sources (useful for antenna theory and other engineering applications), are
\label{eqn:maxwellLagrangian:220}
\begin{aligned}
\spacegrad \cdot \BE &= \frac{\rho}{\epsilon} \\
\spacegrad \cross \BE &= – \BM – \mu \PD{t}{\BH} \\
\spacegrad \cdot \BH &= \frac{\rho_\txtm}{\mu} \\
\spacegrad \cross \BH &= \BJ + \epsilon \PD{t}{\BE}.
\end{aligned}

We can assemble these into a single geometric algebra equation,
\label{eqn:maxwellLagrangian:240}
\lr{ \spacegrad + \inv{c} \PD{t}{} } F = \eta \lr{ c \rho – \BJ } + I \lr{ c \rho_{\mathrm{m}} – \BM },

where $$F = \BE + \eta I \BH = \BE + I c \BB$$, $$c = 1/\sqrt{\mu\epsilon}, \eta = \sqrt{(\mu/\epsilon)}$$.

By multiplying through by $$\gamma_0$$, making the identification $$\Be_k = \gamma_k \gamma_0$$, and
\label{eqn:maxwellLagrangian:300}
\begin{aligned}
J^0 &= \frac{\rho}{\epsilon}, \quad J^k = \eta \lr{ \BJ \cdot \Be_k }, \quad J = J^\mu \gamma_\mu \\
M^0 &= c \rho_{\mathrm{m}}, \quad M^k = \BM \cdot \Be_k, \quad M = M^\mu \gamma_\mu \\
\end{aligned}

we find the STA form of Maxwell’s equation, including magnetic sources
\label{eqn:maxwellLagrangian:320}
\grad F = J – I M.

## Decoupling the electric and magnetic fields and sources.

We can utilize two separate four-vector potential fields to split Maxwell’s equation into two parts. Let
\label{eqn:maxwellLagrangian:1740}
F = F_{\mathrm{e}} + I F_{\mathrm{m}},

where
\label{eqn:maxwellLagrangian:1760}
\begin{aligned}
F_{\mathrm{e}} &= \grad \wedge A \\
\end{aligned}

and $$A, K$$ are independent four-vector potential fields. Plugging this into Maxwell’s equation, and employing a duality transformation, gives us two coupled vector grade equations
\label{eqn:maxwellLagrangian:1780}
\begin{aligned}
\grad \cdot F_{\mathrm{e}} – I \lr{ \grad \wedge F_{\mathrm{m}} } &= J \\
\grad \cdot F_{\mathrm{m}} + I \lr{ \grad \wedge F_{\mathrm{e}} } &= M.
\end{aligned}

However, since $$\grad \wedge F_{\mathrm{m}} = \grad \wedge F_{\mathrm{e}} = 0$$, by construction, the curls above are killed. We may also add in $$\grad \wedge F_{\mathrm{e}} = 0$$ and $$\grad \wedge F_{\mathrm{m}} = 0$$ respectively, yielding two independent gradient equations
\label{eqn:maxwellLagrangian:1810}
\begin{aligned}
\end{aligned}

one for each of the electric and magnetic sources and their associated fields.

## Tensor formulation.

The electromagnetic field $$F$$, is a vector-bivector multivector in the multivector representation of Maxwell’s equation, but is a bivector in the STA representation. The split of $$F$$ into it’s electric and magnetic field components is observer dependent, but we may write it without reference to a specific observer frame as
\label{eqn:maxwellLagrangian:1830}
F = \inv{2} \gamma_\mu \wedge \gamma_\nu F^{\mu\nu},

where $$F^{\mu\nu}$$ is an arbitrary antisymmetric 2nd rank tensor. Maxwell’s equation has a vector and trivector component, which may be split out explicitly using grade selection, to find
\label{eqn:maxwellLagrangian:360}
\begin{aligned}
\grad \cdot F &= J \\
\grad \wedge F &= -I M.
\end{aligned}

Further dotting and wedging these equations with $$\gamma^\mu$$ allows for extraction of scalar relations
\label{eqn:maxwellLagrangian:460}
\partial_\nu F^{\nu\mu} = J^{\mu}, \quad \partial_\nu G^{\nu\mu} = M^{\mu},

where $$G^{\mu\nu} = -(1/2) \epsilon^{\mu\nu\alpha\beta} F_{\alpha\beta}$$ is also an antisymmetric 2nd rank tensor.

If we treat $$F^{\mu\nu}$$ and $$G^{\mu\nu}$$ as independent fields, this pair of equations is the coordinate equivalent to \ref{eqn:maxwellLagrangian:1760}, also decoupling the electric and magnetic source contributions to Maxwell’s equation.

## Coordinate representation of the Lagrangian.

As observed above, we may choose to express the decoupled fields as curls $$F_{\mathrm{e}} = \grad \wedge A$$ or $$F_{\mathrm{m}} = \grad \wedge K$$. The coordinate expansion of either field component, given such a representation, is straight forward. For example
\label{eqn:maxwellLagrangian:1850}
\begin{aligned}
F_{\mathrm{e}}
&= \lr{ \gamma_\mu \partial^\mu } \wedge \lr{ \gamma_\nu A^\nu } \\
&= \inv{2} \lr{ \gamma_\mu \wedge \gamma_\nu } \lr{ \partial^\mu A^\nu – \partial^\nu A^\mu }.
\end{aligned}

We make the identification $$F^{\mu\nu} = \partial^\mu A^\nu – \partial^\nu A^\mu$$, the usual definition of $$F^{\mu\nu}$$ in the tensor formalism. In that tensor formalism, the Maxwell Lagrangian is
\label{eqn:maxwellLagrangian:1870}
\LL = – \inv{4} F_{\mu\nu} F^{\mu\nu} – A_\mu J^\mu.

We may show this though application of the Euler-Lagrange equations
\label{eqn:maxwellLagrangian:600}
\PD{A_\mu}{\LL} = \partial_\nu \PD{(\partial_\nu A_\mu)}{\LL}.

\label{eqn:maxwellLagrangian:1930}
\begin{aligned}
\PD{(\partial_\nu A_\mu)}{\LL}
&= -\inv{4} (2) \lr{ \PD{(\partial_\nu A_\mu)}{F_{\alpha\beta}} } F^{\alpha\beta} \\
&= -\inv{2} \delta^{[\nu\mu]}_{\alpha\beta} F^{\alpha\beta} \\
&= -\inv{2} \lr{ F^{\nu\mu} – F^{\mu\nu} } \\
&= F^{\mu\nu}.
\end{aligned}

So $$\partial_\nu F^{\nu\mu} = J^\mu$$, the equivalent of $$\grad \cdot F = J$$, as expected.

## Coordinate-free representation and variation of the Lagrangian.

Because
\label{eqn:maxwellLagrangian:200}
F^2 =
-\inv{2}
F^{\mu\nu} F_{\mu\nu}
+
\lr{ \gamma_\alpha \wedge \gamma^\beta }
F_{\alpha\mu}
F^{\beta\mu}
+
\frac{I}{4}
\epsilon_{\mu\nu\alpha\beta} F^{\mu\nu} F^{\alpha\beta},

we may express the Lagrangian \ref{eqn:maxwellLagrangian:1870} in a coordinate free representation
\label{eqn:maxwellLagrangian:1890}
\LL = \inv{2} F \cdot F – A \cdot J,

where $$F = \grad \wedge A$$.

We will now show that it is also possible to apply the variational principle to the following multivector Lagrangian
\label{eqn:maxwellLagrangian:1910}
\LL = \inv{2} F^2 – A \cdot J,

and recover the geometric algebra form $$\grad F = J$$ of Maxwell’s equation in it’s entirety, including both vector and trivector components in one shot.

We will need a few geometric algebra tools to do this.

The first such tool is the notational freedom to let the gradient act bidirectionally on multivectors to the left and right. We will designate such action with over-arrows, sometimes also using braces to limit the scope of the action in question. If $$Q, R$$ are multivectors, then the bidirectional action of the gradient in a $$Q, R$$ sandwich is
\label{eqn:maxwellLagrangian:1950}
\begin{aligned}
&= \lr{ Q \gamma^\mu \lpartial_\mu } R + Q \lr{ \gamma^\mu \rpartial_\mu R } \\
&= \lr{ \partial_\mu Q } \gamma^\mu R + Q \gamma^\mu \lr{ \partial_\mu R }.
\end{aligned}

In the final statement, the partials are acting exclusively on $$Q$$ and $$R$$ respectively, but the $$\gamma^\mu$$ factors must remain in place, as they do not necessarily commute with any of the multivector factors.

This bidirectional action is a critical aspect of the Fundamental Theorem of Geometric calculus, another tool that we will require. The specific form of that theorem that we will utilize here is
\label{eqn:maxwellLagrangian:1970}
\int_V Q d^4 \Bx \lrgrad R = \int_{\partial V} Q d^3 \Bx R,

where $$d^4 \Bx = I d^4 x$$ is the pseudoscalar four-volume element associated with a parameterization of space time. For our purposes, we may assume that parameterization are standard basis coordinates associated with the basis $$\setlr{ \gamma_0, \gamma_1, \gamma_2, \gamma_3 }$$. The surface differential form $$d^3 \Bx$$ can be given specific meaning, but we do not actually care what that form is here, as all our surface integrals will be zero due to the boundary constraints of the variational principle.

Finally, we will utilize the fact that bivector products can be split into grade $$0,4$$ and $$2$$ components using anticommutator and commutator products, namely, given two bivectors $$F, G$$, we have
\label{eqn:maxwellLagrangian:1990}
\begin{aligned}
\gpgrade{ F G }{0,4} &= \inv{2} \lr{ F G + G F } \\
\gpgrade{ F G }{2} &= \inv{2} \lr{ F G – G F }.
\end{aligned}

We may now proceed to evaluate the variation of the action for our presumed Lagrangian
\label{eqn:maxwellLagrangian:2010}
S = \int d^4 x \lr{ \inv{2} F^2 – A \cdot J }.

We seek solutions of the variational equation $$\delta S = 0$$, that are satisfied for all variations $$\delta A$$, where the four-potential variations $$\delta A$$ are zero on the boundaries of this action volume (i.e. an infinite spherical surface.)

We may start our variation in terms of $$F$$ and $$A$$
\label{eqn:maxwellLagrangian:1540}
\begin{aligned}
\delta S
&=
\int d^4 x \lr{ \inv{2} \lr{ \delta F } F + F \lr{ \delta F } } – \lr{ \delta A } \cdot J \\
&=
\int d^4 x \gpgrade{ \lr{ \delta F } F – \lr{ \delta A } J }{0,4} \\
&=
\int d^4 x \gpgrade{ \lr{ \grad \wedge \lr{\delta A} } F – \lr{ \delta A } J }{0,4} \\
&=
-\int d^4 x \gpgrade{ \lr{ \lr{\delta A} \lgrad } F – \lr{ \lr{ \delta A } \cdot \lgrad } F + \lr{ \delta A } J }{0,4} \\
&=
-\int d^4 x \gpgrade{ \lr{ \lr{\delta A} \lgrad } F + \lr{ \delta A } J }{0,4} \\
&=
-\int d^4 x \gpgrade{ \lr{\delta A} \lrgrad F – \lr{\delta A} \rgrad F + \lr{ \delta A } J }{0,4},
\end{aligned}

where we have used arrows, when required, to indicate the directional action of the gradient.

Writing $$d^4 x = -I d^4 \Bx$$, we have
\label{eqn:maxwellLagrangian:1600}
\begin{aligned}
\delta S
&=
-\int_V d^4 x \gpgrade{ \lr{\delta A} \lrgrad F – \lr{\delta A} \rgrad F + \lr{ \delta A } J }{0,4} \\
&=
-\int_V \gpgrade{ -\lr{\delta A} I d^4 \Bx \lrgrad F – d^4 x \lr{\delta A} \rgrad F + d^4 x \lr{ \delta A } J }{0,4} \\
&=
\int_{\partial V} \gpgrade{ \lr{\delta A} I d^3 \Bx F }{0,4}
+ \int_V d^4 x \gpgrade{ \lr{\delta A} \lr{ \rgrad F – J } }{0,4}.
\end{aligned}

The first integral is killed since $$\delta A = 0$$ on the boundary. The remaining integrand can be simplified to
\label{eqn:maxwellLagrangian:1660}

where the grade-4 filter has also been discarded since $$\grad F = \grad \cdot F + \grad \wedge F = \grad \cdot F$$ since $$\grad \wedge F = \grad \wedge \grad \wedge A = 0$$ by construction, which implies that the only non-zero grades in the multivector $$\grad F – J$$ are vector grades. Also, the directional indicator on the gradient has been dropped, since there is no longer any ambiguity. We seek solutions of $$\gpgrade{ \lr{\delta A} \lr{ \grad F – J } }{0} = 0$$ for all variations $$\delta A$$, namely
\label{eqn:maxwellLagrangian:1620}
\boxed{
}

This is Maxwell’s equation in it’s coordinate free STA form, found using the variational principle from a coordinate free multivector Maxwell Lagrangian, without having to resort to a coordinate expansion of that Lagrangian.

## Lagrangian for fictitious magnetic sources.

The generalization of the Lagrangian to include magnetic charge and current densities can be as simple as utilizing two independent four-potential fields
\label{eqn:maxwellLagrangian:n}
\LL = \inv{2} \lr{ \grad \wedge A }^2 – A \cdot J + \alpha \lr{ \inv{2} \lr{ \grad \wedge K }^2 – K \cdot M },

where $$\alpha$$ is an arbitrary multivector constant.

Variation of this Lagrangian provides two independent equations
\label{eqn:maxwellLagrangian:1840}
\begin{aligned}
\end{aligned}

We may add these, scaling the second by $$-I$$ (recall that $$I, \grad$$ anticommute), to find
\label{eqn:maxwellLagrangian:1860}
\grad \lr{ F_{\mathrm{e}} + I F_{\mathrm{m}} } = J – I M,

which is $$\grad F = J – I M$$, as desired.

It would be interesting to explore whether it is possible find Lagrangian that is dependent on a multivector potential, that would yield $$\grad F = J – I M$$ directly, instead of requiring a superposition operation from the two independent solutions. One such possible potential is $$\tilde{A} = A – I K$$, for which $$F = \gpgradetwo{ \grad \tilde{A} } = \grad \wedge A + I \lr{ \grad \wedge K }$$. The author was not successful constructing such a Lagrangian.

## Curl of F revisited.

This is the 8th part of a series on finding Maxwell’s equations (including the fictitious magnetic sources that are useful in engineering) from a multivector Lagrangian representation.

[Click here for a PDF version of this series of posts, up to and including this one.]  The first, second, third, fourth, fifth, sixth, and
seventh parts are also available here on this blog.

There’s an aspect of the previous treatment that has bugged me. We’ve used a Lagrangian
\label{eqn:fsquared:1440y}
\LL = \inv{2} F^2 – \gpgrade{A \lr{ J – I M } }{0,4},
where $$F = \grad \wedge A$$, and found Maxwell’s equation by varying the Lagrangian
\label{eqn:fsquared:1680}
\grad F = J – I M.

However, if we decompose this into vector and trivector parts we have
\label{eqn:fsquared:1700}
\begin{aligned}
\grad \cdot F &= J \\
\grad \wedge F &= -I M,
\end{aligned}

and then put our original $$F = \grad \wedge A$$ back in the magnetic term of this equation, we have a contradiction
\label{eqn:fsquared:1720}
0 = -I M,

since
\label{eqn:fsquared:1880}

provided we have equality of mixed partials for $$A$$. The resolution to this contradiction appears to be a requirement to define the field differently. In particular, we can utilize two separate four-vector potential fields to split Maxwell’s equation into two parts. Let
\label{eqn:fsquared:1740}
F = F_{\mathrm{e}} + I F_{\mathrm{m}},

where
\label{eqn:fsquared:1760}
\begin{aligned}
F_{\mathrm{e}} &= \grad \wedge A \\
\end{aligned}

and $$A, K$$ are independent four-vector potential fields. Plugging this into Maxwell’s equation, and employing a duality transformation, gives us two coupled vector grade equations
\label{eqn:fsquared:1780}
\begin{aligned}
\grad \cdot F_{\mathrm{e}} – I \lr{ \grad \wedge F_{\mathrm{m}} } &= J \\
\grad \cdot F_{\mathrm{m}} + I \lr{ \grad \wedge F_{\mathrm{e}} } &= M.
\end{aligned}

However, since $$\grad \wedge F_{\mathrm{m}} = \grad \wedge F_{\mathrm{e}} = 0$$, these decouple trivially, leaving
\label{eqn:fsquared:1800}
\begin{aligned}
\grad \cdot F_{\mathrm{e}} &= J \\
\end{aligned}

In fact, again, since $$\grad \wedge F_{\mathrm{m}} = \grad \wedge F_{\mathrm{e}} = 0$$, these are equivalent to two independent gradient equations
\label{eqn:fsquared:1810}
\begin{aligned}
\end{aligned}

one for each of the electric and magnetic sources and their associated fields.

Should we wish to recover these two equations from a Lagrangian, we form a multivector Lagrangian that uses two independent four-vector fields
\label{eqn:fsquared:1820}
\LL = \inv{2} \lr{ \grad \wedge A }^2 – A \cdot J + \alpha \lr{ \inv{2} \lr{ \grad \wedge K }^2 – K \cdot M },

where $$\alpha$$ is an arbitrary multivector constant. Variation of this Lagrangian provides two independent equations
\label{eqn:fsquared:1840}
\begin{aligned}
\end{aligned}

We may add these, scaling the second by $$-I$$ (recall that $$I, \grad$$ anticommute), to find
\label{eqn:fsquared:1860}
\grad \lr{ F_{\mathrm{e}} + I F_{\mathrm{m}} } = J – I M,

which is $$\grad F = J – I M$$, as desired. This resolves the eq \ref{eqn:fsquared:1720} conundrum, but the cost is that we essentially have an independent Lagrangian for each of the electric and magnetic sources. I think that is the cost of correctness. Perhaps there is an alternative Lagrangian for the electric+magnetic case that yields all of Maxwell’s equation in one shot. My attempts to formulate one in terms of the total field $$F = F_{\mathrm{e}} + I F_{\mathrm{m}}$$ have not been successful.

On the positive side, for non-fictitious electric sources, the case that we care about in physics, we still have the pleasantry of being able to use a simple multivector (coordinate-free) Lagrangian, and vary that in a coordinate free fashion to find Maxwell’s equation. This has an aesthetic quality that is arguably superior to the usual procedure of using the Euler-Lagrange equations and lots of index gymnastics to find the tensor form of Maxwell’s equation (i.e. the vector part of Maxwell’s) and applying the Bianchi identity to fill in the pieces (i.e. the trivector component of Maxwell’s.)

## Notes.

Due to limitations in the MathJax-Latex package, all the oriented integrals in this blog post should be interpreted as having a clockwise orientation. [See the PDF version of this post for more sophisticated formatting.]

## Guts.

Given a two dimensional generating vector space, there are two instances of the fundamental theorem for multivector integration
\label{eqn:unpackingFundamentalTheorem:20}
\int_S F d\Bx \lrpartial G = \evalbar{F G}{\Delta S},

and
\label{eqn:unpackingFundamentalTheorem:40}
\int_S F d^2\Bx \lrpartial G = \oint_{\partial S} F d\Bx G.

The first case is trivial. Given a parameterizated curve $$x = x(u)$$, it just states
\label{eqn:unpackingFundamentalTheorem:60}
\int_{u(0)}^{u(1)} du \PD{u}{}\lr{FG} = F(u(1))G(u(1)) – F(u(0))G(u(0)),

for all multivectors $$F, G$$, regardless of the signature of the underlying space.

The surface integral is more interesting. Let’s first look at the area element for this surface integral, which is
\label{eqn:unpackingFundamentalTheorem:80}
d^2 \Bx = d\Bx_u \wedge d \Bx_v.

Geometrically, this has the area of the parallelogram spanned by $$d\Bx_u$$ and $$d\Bx_v$$, but weighted by the pseudoscalar of the space. This is explored algebraically in the following problem and illustrated in fig. 1.

fig. 1. 2D vector space and area element.

## Problem: Expansion of 2D area bivector.

Let $$\setlr{e_1, e_2}$$ be an orthonormal basis for a two dimensional space, with reciprocal frame $$\setlr{e^1, e^2}$$. Expand the area bivector $$d^2 \Bx$$ in coordinates relating the bivector to the Jacobian and the pseudoscalar.

With parameterization $$x = x(u,v) = x^\alpha e_\alpha = x_\alpha e^\alpha$$, we have
\label{eqn:unpackingFundamentalTheorem:120}
\Bx_u \wedge \Bx_v
=
\lr{ \PD{u}{x^\alpha} e_\alpha } \wedge
\lr{ \PD{v}{x^\beta} e_\beta }
=
\PD{u}{x^\alpha}
\PD{v}{x^\beta}
e_\alpha
e_\beta
=
\PD{(u,v)}{(x^1,x^2)} e_1 e_2,

or
\label{eqn:unpackingFundamentalTheorem:160}
\Bx_u \wedge \Bx_v
=
\lr{ \PD{u}{x_\alpha} e^\alpha } \wedge
\lr{ \PD{v}{x_\beta} e^\beta }
=
\PD{u}{x_\alpha}
\PD{v}{x_\beta}
e^\alpha
e^\beta
=
\PD{(u,v)}{(x_1,x_2)} e^1 e^2.

The upper and lower index pseudoscalars are related by
\label{eqn:unpackingFundamentalTheorem:180}
e^1 e^2 e_1 e_2 =
-e^1 e^2 e_2 e_1 =
-1,

so with $$I = e_1 e_2$$,
\label{eqn:unpackingFundamentalTheorem:200}
e^1 e^2 = -I^{-1},

leaving us with
\label{eqn:unpackingFundamentalTheorem:140}
d^2 \Bx
= \PD{(u,v)}{(x^1,x^2)} du dv\, I
= -\PD{(u,v)}{(x_1,x_2)} du dv\, I^{-1}.

We see that the area bivector is proportional to either the upper or lower index Jacobian and to the pseudoscalar for the space.

We may write the fundamental theorem for a 2D space as
\label{eqn:unpackingFundamentalTheorem:680}
\int_S du dv \, \PD{(u,v)}{(x^1,x^2)} F I \lrgrad G = \oint_{\partial S} F d\Bx G,

where we have dispensed with the vector derivative and use the gradient instead, since they are identical in a two parameter two dimensional space. Of course, unless we are using $$x^1, x^2$$ as our parameterization, we still want the curvilinear representation of the gradient $$\grad = \Bx^u \PDi{u}{} + \Bx^v \PDi{v}{}$$.

## Problem: Standard basis expansion of fundamental surface relation.

For a parameterization $$x = x^1 e_1 + x^2 e_2$$, where $$\setlr{ e_1, e_2 }$$ is a standard (orthogonal) basis, expand the fundamental theorem for surface integrals for the single sided $$F = 1$$ case. Consider functions $$G$$ of each grade (scalar, vector, bivector.)

From \ref{eqn:unpackingFundamentalTheorem:140} we see that the fundamental theorem takes the form
\label{eqn:unpackingFundamentalTheorem:220}
\int_S dx^1 dx^2\, F I \lrgrad G = \oint_{\partial S} F d\Bx G.

In a Euclidean space, the operator $$I \lrgrad$$, is a $$\pi/2$$ rotation of the gradient, but has a rotated like structure in all metrics:
\label{eqn:unpackingFundamentalTheorem:240}
=
e_1 e_2 \lr{ e^1 \partial_1 + e^2 \partial_2 }
=
-e_2 \partial_1 + e_1 \partial_2.

• $$F = 1$$ and $$G \in \bigwedge^0$$ or $$G \in \bigwedge^2$$. For $$F = 1$$ and scalar or bivector $$G$$ we have
\label{eqn:unpackingFundamentalTheorem:260}
\int_S dx^1 dx^2\, \lr{ -e_2 \partial_1 + e_1 \partial_2 } G = \oint_{\partial S} d\Bx G,

where, for $$x^1 \in [x^1(0),x^1(1)]$$ and $$x^2 \in [x^2(0),x^2(1)]$$, the RHS written explicitly is
\label{eqn:unpackingFundamentalTheorem:280}
\oint_{\partial S} d\Bx G
=
\int dx^1 e_1
\lr{ G(x^1, x^2(1)) – G(x^1, x^2(0)) }
– dx^2 e_2
\lr{ G(x^1(1),x^2) – G(x^1(0), x^2) }.

This is sketched in fig. 2. Since a 2D bivector $$G$$ can be written as $$G = I g$$, where $$g$$ is a scalar, we may write the pseudoscalar case as
\label{eqn:unpackingFundamentalTheorem:300}
\int_S dx^1 dx^2\, \lr{ -e_2 \partial_1 + e_1 \partial_2 } g = \oint_{\partial S} d\Bx g,

after right multiplying both sides with $$I^{-1}$$. Algebraically the scalar and pseudoscalar cases can be thought of as identical scalar relationships.
• $$F = 1, G \in \bigwedge^1$$. For $$F = 1$$ and vector $$G$$ the 2D fundamental theorem for surfaces can be split into scalar
\label{eqn:unpackingFundamentalTheorem:320}
\int_S dx^1 dx^2\, \lr{ -e_2 \partial_1 + e_1 \partial_2 } \cdot G = \oint_{\partial S} d\Bx \cdot G,

and bivector relations
\label{eqn:unpackingFundamentalTheorem:340}
\int_S dx^1 dx^2\, \lr{ -e_2 \partial_1 + e_1 \partial_2 } \wedge G = \oint_{\partial S} d\Bx \wedge G.

To expand \ref{eqn:unpackingFundamentalTheorem:320}, let
\label{eqn:unpackingFundamentalTheorem:360}
G = g_1 e^1 + g_2 e^2,

for which
\label{eqn:unpackingFundamentalTheorem:380}
\lr{ -e_2 \partial_1 + e_1 \partial_2 } \cdot G
=
\lr{ -e_2 \partial_1 + e_1 \partial_2 } \cdot
\lr{ g_1 e^1 + g_2 e^2 }
=
\partial_2 g_1 – \partial_1 g_2,

and
\label{eqn:unpackingFundamentalTheorem:400}
d\Bx \cdot G
=
\lr{ dx^1 e_1 – dx^2 e_2 } \cdot \lr{ g_1 e^1 + g_2 e^2 }
=
dx^1 g_1 – dx^2 g_2,

so \ref{eqn:unpackingFundamentalTheorem:320} expands to
\label{eqn:unpackingFundamentalTheorem:500}
\int_S dx^1 dx^2\, \lr{ \partial_2 g_1 – \partial_1 g_2 }
=
\int
\evalbar{dx^1 g_1}{\Delta x^2} – \evalbar{ dx^2 g_2 }{\Delta x^1}.

This coordinate expansion illustrates how the pseudoscalar nature of the area element results in a duality transformation, as we end up with a curl like operation on the LHS, despite the dot product nature of the decomposition that we used. That can also be seen directly for vector $$G$$, since
\label{eqn:unpackingFundamentalTheorem:560}
=
=
dA I \lr{ \grad \wedge G },

since the scalar selection of $$I \lr{ \grad \cdot G }$$ is zero.In the grade-2 relation \ref{eqn:unpackingFundamentalTheorem:340}, we expect a pseudoscalar cancellation on both sides, leaving a scalar (divergence-like) relationship. This time, we use upper index coordinates for the vector $$G$$, letting
\label{eqn:unpackingFundamentalTheorem:440}
G = g^1 e_1 + g^2 e_2,

so
\label{eqn:unpackingFundamentalTheorem:460}
\lr{ -e_2 \partial_1 + e_1 \partial_2 } \wedge G
=
\lr{ -e_2 \partial_1 + e_1 \partial_2 } \wedge G
\lr{ g^1 e_1 + g^2 e_2 }
=
e_1 e_2 \lr{ \partial_1 g^1 + \partial_2 g^2 },

and
\label{eqn:unpackingFundamentalTheorem:480}
d\Bx \wedge G
=
\lr{ dx^1 e_1 – dx^2 e_2 } \wedge
\lr{ g^1 e_1 + g^2 e_2 }
=
e_1 e_2 \lr{ dx^1 g^2 + dx^2 g^1 }.

So \ref{eqn:unpackingFundamentalTheorem:340}, after multiplication of both sides by $$I^{-1}$$, is
\label{eqn:unpackingFundamentalTheorem:520}
\int_S dx^1 dx^2\,
\lr{ \partial_1 g^1 + \partial_2 g^2 }
=
\int
\evalbar{dx^1 g^2}{\Delta x^2} + \evalbar{dx^2 g^1 }{\Delta x^1}.

As before, we’ve implicitly performed a duality transformation, and end up with a divergence operation. That can be seen directly without coordinate expansion, by rewriting the wedge as a grade two selection, and expanding the gradient action on the vector $$G$$, as follows
\label{eqn:unpackingFundamentalTheorem:580}
=
=
dA I \lr{ \grad \cdot G },

since $$I \lr{ \grad \wedge G }$$ has only a scalar component.

fig. 2. Line integral around rectangular boundary.

## Theorem 1.1: Green’s theorem [1].

Let $$S$$ be a Jordan region with a piecewise-smooth boundary $$C$$. If $$P, Q$$ are continuously differentiable on an open set that contains $$S$$, then
\begin{equation*}
\int dx dy \lr{ \PD{y}{P} – \PD{x}{Q} } = \oint P dx + Q dy.
\end{equation*}

## Problem: Relationship to Green’s theorem.

If the space is Euclidean, show that \ref{eqn:unpackingFundamentalTheorem:500} and \ref{eqn:unpackingFundamentalTheorem:520} are both instances of Green’s theorem with suitable choices of $$P$$ and $$Q$$.

I will omit the subtleties related to general regions and consider just the case of an infinitesimal square region.

### Start proof:

Let’s start with \ref{eqn:unpackingFundamentalTheorem:500}, with $$g_1 = P$$ and $$g_2 = Q$$, and $$x^1 = x, x^2 = y$$, the RHS is
\label{eqn:unpackingFundamentalTheorem:600}
\int dx dy \lr{ \PD{y}{P} – \PD{x}{Q} }.

On the RHS we have
\label{eqn:unpackingFundamentalTheorem:620}
\int \evalbar{dx P}{\Delta y} – \evalbar{ dy Q }{\Delta x}
=
\int dx \lr{ P(x, y_1) – P(x, y_0) } – \int dy \lr{ Q(x_1, y) – Q(x_0, y) }.

This pair of integrals is plotted in fig. 3, from which we see that \ref{eqn:unpackingFundamentalTheorem:620} can be expressed as the line integral, leaving us with
\label{eqn:unpackingFundamentalTheorem:640}
\int dx dy \lr{ \PD{y}{P} – \PD{x}{Q} }
=
\oint dx P + dy Q,

which is Green’s theorem over the infinitesimal square integration region.

For the equivalence of \ref{eqn:unpackingFundamentalTheorem:520} to Green’s theorem, let $$g^2 = P$$, and $$g^1 = -Q$$. Plugging into the LHS, we find the Green’s theorem integrand. On the RHS, the integrand expands to
\label{eqn:unpackingFundamentalTheorem:660}
\evalbar{dx g^2}{\Delta y} + \evalbar{dy g^1 }{\Delta x}
=
dx \lr{ P(x,y_1) – P(x, y_0)}
+
dy \lr{ -Q(x_1, y) + Q(x_0, y)},

which is exactly what we found in \ref{eqn:unpackingFundamentalTheorem:620}.

### End proof.

fig. 3. Path for Green’s theorem.

We may also relate multivector gradient integrals in 2D to the normal integral around the boundary of the bounding curve. That relationship is as follows.

## Theorem 1.2: 2D gradient integrals.

\begin{equation*}
\begin{aligned}
\int J du dv \rgrad G &= \oint I^{-1} d\Bx G = \int J \lr{ \Bx^v du + \Bx^u dv } G \\
\int J du dv F \lgrad &= \oint F I^{-1} d\Bx = \int J F \lr{ \Bx^v du + \Bx^u dv },
\end{aligned}
\end{equation*}
where $$J = \partial(x^1, x^2)/\partial(u,v)$$ is the Jacobian of the parameterization $$x = x(u,v)$$. In terms of the coordinates $$x^1, x^2$$, this reduces to
\begin{equation*}
\begin{aligned}
\int dx^1 dx^2 \rgrad G &= \oint I^{-1} d\Bx G = \int \lr{ e^2 dx^1 + e^1 dx^2 } G \\
\int dx^1 dx^2 F \lgrad &= \oint G I^{-1} d\Bx = \int F \lr{ e^2 dx^1 + e^1 dx^2 }.
\end{aligned}
\end{equation*}
The vector $$I^{-1} d\Bx$$ is orthogonal to the tangent vector along the boundary, and for Euclidean spaces it can be identified as the outwards normal.

### Start proof:

Respectively setting $$F = 1$$, and $$G = 1$$ in \ref{eqn:unpackingFundamentalTheorem:680}, we have
\label{eqn:unpackingFundamentalTheorem:940}
\int I^{-1} d^2 \Bx \rgrad G = \oint I^{-1} d\Bx G,

and
\label{eqn:unpackingFundamentalTheorem:960}
\int F d^2 \Bx \lgrad I^{-1} = \oint F d\Bx I^{-1}.

Starting with \ref{eqn:unpackingFundamentalTheorem:940} we find
\label{eqn:unpackingFundamentalTheorem:700}
\int I^{-1} J du dv I \rgrad G = \oint d\Bx G,

to find $$\int dx^1 dx^2 \rgrad G = \oint I^{-1} d\Bx G$$, as desireed. In terms of a parameterization $$x = x(u,v)$$, the pseudoscalar for the space is
\label{eqn:unpackingFundamentalTheorem:720}
I = \frac{\Bx_u \wedge \Bx_v}{J},

so
\label{eqn:unpackingFundamentalTheorem:740}
I^{-1} = \frac{J}{\Bx_u \wedge \Bx_v}.

Also note that $$\lr{\Bx_u \wedge \Bx_v}^{-1} = \Bx^v \wedge \Bx^u$$, so
\label{eqn:unpackingFundamentalTheorem:760}
I^{-1} = J \lr{ \Bx^v \wedge \Bx^u },

and
\label{eqn:unpackingFundamentalTheorem:780}
I^{-1} d\Bx
= I^{-1} \cdot d\Bx
= J \lr{ \Bx^v \wedge \Bx^u } \cdot \lr{ \Bx_u du – \Bx_v dv }
= J \lr{ \Bx^v du + \Bx^u dv },

so the right acting gradient integral is
\label{eqn:unpackingFundamentalTheorem:800}
\int J du dv \grad G =
\int
\evalbar{J \Bx^v G}{\Delta v} du + \evalbar{J \Bx^u G dv}{\Delta u},

which we write in abbreviated form as $$\int J \lr{ \Bx^v du + \Bx^u dv} G$$.

For the $$G = 1$$ case, from \ref{eqn:unpackingFundamentalTheorem:960} we find
\label{eqn:unpackingFundamentalTheorem:820}
\int J du dv F I \lgrad I^{-1} = \oint F d\Bx I^{-1}.

However, in a 2D space, regardless of metric, we have $$I a = – a I$$ for any vector $$a$$ (i.e. $$\grad$$ or $$d\Bx$$), so we may commute the outer pseudoscalars in
\label{eqn:unpackingFundamentalTheorem:840}
\int J du dv F I \lgrad I^{-1} = \oint F d\Bx I^{-1},

so
\label{eqn:unpackingFundamentalTheorem:850}
-\int J du dv F I I^{-1} \lgrad = -\oint F I^{-1} d\Bx.

After cancelling the negative sign on both sides, we have the claimed result.

To see that $$I a$$, for any vector $$a$$ is normal to $$a$$, we can compute the dot product
\label{eqn:unpackingFundamentalTheorem:860}
\lr{ I a } \cdot a
=
=
= 0,

since the scalar selection of a bivector is zero. Since $$I^{-1} = \pm I$$, the same argument shows that $$I^{-1} d\Bx$$ must be orthogonal to $$d\Bx$$.

### End proof.

Let’s look at the geometry of the normal $$I^{-1} \Bx$$ in a couple 2D vector spaces. We use an integration volume of a unit square to simplify the boundary term expressions.

• Euclidean: With a parameterization $$x(u,v) = u\Be_1 + v \Be_2$$, and Euclidean basis vectors $$(\Be_1)^2 = (\Be_2)^2 = 1$$, the fundamental theorem integrated over the rectangle $$[x_0,x_1] \times [y_0,y_1]$$ is
\label{eqn:unpackingFundamentalTheorem:880}
\int dx dy \grad G =
\int
\Be_2 \lr{ G(x,y_1) – G(x,y_0) } dx +
\Be_1 \lr{ G(x_1,y) – G(x_0,y) } dy,

Each of the terms in the integrand above are illustrated in fig. 4, and we see that this is a path integral weighted by the outwards normal.

fig. 4. Outwards oriented normal for Euclidean space.

• Spacetime: Let $$x(u,v) = u \gamma_0 + v \gamma_1$$, where $$(\gamma_0)^2 = -(\gamma_1)^2 = 1$$. With $$u = t, v = x$$, the gradient integral over a $$[t_0,t_1] \times [x_0,x_1]$$ of spacetime is
\label{eqn:unpackingFundamentalTheorem:900}
\begin{aligned}
&=
\int
\gamma^1 dt \lr{ G(t, x_1) – G(t, x_0) }
+
\gamma^0 dx \lr{ G(t_1, x) – G(t_1, x) } \\
&=
\int
\gamma_1 dt \lr{ -G(t, x_1) + G(t, x_0) }
+
\gamma_0 dx \lr{ G(t_1, x) – G(t_1, x) }
.
\end{aligned}

With $$t$$ plotted along the horizontal axis, and $$x$$ along the vertical, each of the terms of this integrand is illustrated graphically in fig. 5. For this mixed signature space, there is no longer any good geometrical characterization of the normal.

fig. 5. Orientation of the boundary normal for a spacetime basis.

• Spacelike:
Let $$x(u,v) = u \gamma_1 + v \gamma_2$$, where $$(\gamma_1)^2 = (\gamma_2)^2 = -1$$. With $$u = x, v = y$$, the gradient integral over a $$[x_0,x_1] \times [y_0,y_1]$$ of this space is
\label{eqn:unpackingFundamentalTheorem:920}
\begin{aligned}
&=
\int
\gamma^2 dx \lr{ G(x, y_1) – G(x, y_0) }
+
\gamma^1 dy \lr{ G(x_1, y) – G(x_1, y) } \\
&=
\int
\gamma_2 dx \lr{ -G(x, y_1) + G(x, y_0) }
+
\gamma_1 dy \lr{ -G(x_1, y) + G(x_1, y) }
.
\end{aligned}

Referring to fig. 6. where the elements of the integrand are illustrated, we see that the normal $$I^{-1} d\Bx$$ for the boundary of this region can be characterized as inwards.

fig. 6. Inwards oriented normal for a Dirac spacelike basis.

# References

[1] S.L. Salas and E. Hille. Calculus: one and several variables. Wiley New York, 1990.

## Curvilinear coordinates and gradient in spacetime, and reciprocal frames.

[If mathjax doesn’t display properly for you, click here for a PDF of this post]

## Motivation.

I started pondering some aspects of spacetime integration theory, and found that there were some aspects of the concepts of reciprocal frames that were not clear to me. In the process of sorting those ideas out for myself, I wrote up the following notes.

In the notes below, I will introduce the many of the prerequisite ideas that are needed to express and apply the fundamental theorem of geometric calculus in a 4D relativistic context. The focus will be the Dirac’s algebra of special relativity, known as STA (Space Time Algebra) in geometric algebra parlance. If desired, it should be clear how to apply these ideas to lower or higher dimensional spaces, and to plain old Euclidean metrics.

### On notation.

In Euclidean space we use bold face reciprocal frame vectors $$\Bx^i \cdot \Bx_j = {\delta^i}_j$$, which nicely distinguishes them from the generalized coordinates $$x_i, x^j$$ associated with the basis or the reciprocal frame, that is
\label{eqn:reciprocalblog:640}
\Bx = x^i \Bx_i = x_j \Bx^j.

On the other hand, it is conventional to use non-bold face for both the four-vectors and their coordinates in STA, such as the following standard basis decomposition
\label{eqn:reciprocalblog:660}
x = x^\mu \gamma_\mu = x_\mu \gamma^\mu.

If we use non-bold face $$x^\mu, x_\nu$$ for the coordinates with respect to a specified frame, then we cannot also use non-bold face for the curvilinear basis vectors.

To resolve this notational ambiguity, I’ve chosen to use bold face $$\Bx^\mu, \Bx_\nu$$ symbols as the curvilinear basis elements in this relativistic context, as we do for Euclidean spaces.

## Definition 1.1: Standard Dirac basis.

The Dirac basis elements are $$\setlr{ \gamma_0, \gamma_1, \gamma_2, \gamma_3 }$$, satisfying
\label{eqn:reciprocalblog:1940}
\gamma_0^2 = 1 = -\gamma_k^2, \quad \forall k = 1,2,3,

and
\label{eqn:reciprocalblog:740}
\gamma_\mu \cdot \gamma_\nu = 0, \quad \forall \mu \ne \nu.

A conventional way of summarizing these orthogonality relationships is $$\gamma_\mu \cdot \gamma_\nu = \eta_{\mu\nu}$$, where $$\eta_{\mu\nu}$$ are the elements of the metric $$G = \text{diag}(+,-,-,-)$$.

## Definition 1.2: Reciprocal basis for the standard Dirac basis.

We define a reciprocal basis $$\setlr{ \gamma^0, \gamma^1, \gamma^2, \gamma^3}$$ satisfying $$\gamma^\mu \cdot \gamma_\nu = {\delta^\mu}_\nu, \forall \mu,\nu \in 0,1,2,3$$.

## Theorem 1.1: Reciprocal basis uniqueness.

This reciprocal basis is unique, and for our choice of metric has the values
\label{eqn:reciprocalblog:1960}
\gamma^0 = \gamma_0, \quad \gamma^k = -\gamma_k, \quad \forall k = 1,2,3.

Proof is left to the reader.

## Definition 1.3: Coordinates.

We define the coordinates of a vector with respect to the standard basis as $$x^\mu$$ satisfying
\label{eqn:reciprocalblog:1980}
x = x^\mu \gamma_\mu,

and define the coordinates of a vector with respect to the reciprocal basis as $$x_\mu$$ satisfying
\label{eqn:reciprocalblog:2000}
x = x_\mu \gamma^\mu,

## Theorem 1.2: Coordinates.

Given the definitions above, we may compute the coordinates of a vector, simply by dotting with the basis elements
\label{eqn:reciprocalblog:2020}
x^\mu = x \cdot \gamma^\mu,

and
\label{eqn:reciprocalblog:2040}
x_\mu = x \cdot \gamma_\mu,

### Start proof:

This follows by straightforward computation
\label{eqn:reciprocalblog:840}
\begin{aligned}
x \cdot \gamma^\mu
&=
\lr{ x^\nu \gamma_\nu } \cdot \gamma^\mu \\
&=
x^\nu \lr{ \gamma_\nu \cdot \gamma^\mu } \\
&=
x^\nu {\delta_\nu}^\mu \\
&=
x^\mu,
\end{aligned}

and
\label{eqn:reciprocalblog:860}
\begin{aligned}
x \cdot \gamma_\mu
&=
\lr{ x_\nu \gamma^\nu } \cdot \gamma_\mu \\
&=
x_\nu \lr{ \gamma^\nu \cdot \gamma_\mu } \\
&=
x_\nu {\delta^\nu}_\mu \\
&=
x_\mu.
\end{aligned}

## Derivative operators.

We’d like to determine the form of the (spacetime) gradient operator. The gradient can be defined in terms of coordinates directly, but we choose an implicit definition, in terms of the directional derivative.

## Definition 1.4: Directional derivative and gradient.

Let $$F = F(x)$$ be a four-vector parameterized multivector. The directional derivative of $$F$$ with respect to the (four-vector) direction $$a$$ is denoted
\label{eqn:reciprocalblog:2060}
\lr{ a \cdot \grad } F = \lim_{\epsilon \rightarrow 0} \frac{ F(x + \epsilon a) – F(x) }{ \epsilon },

where $$\grad$$ is called the space time gradient.

The standard basis representation of the gradient is
\label{eqn:reciprocalblog:2080}

where
\label{eqn:reciprocalblog:2100}
\partial_\mu = \PD{x^\mu}{}.

### Start proof:

The Dirac gradient pops naturally out of the coordinate representation of the directional derivative, as we can see by expanding $$F(x + \epsilon a)$$ in Taylor series
\label{eqn:reciprocalblog:900}
\begin{aligned}
F(x + \epsilon a)
&= F(x) + \epsilon \frac{dF(x + \epsilon a)}{d\epsilon} + O(\epsilon^2) \\
&= F(x) + \epsilon \PD{\lr{x^\mu + \epsilon a^\mu}}{F} \PD{\epsilon}{\lr{x^\mu + \epsilon a^\mu}} \\
&= F(x) + \epsilon \PD{\lr{x^\mu + \epsilon a^\mu}}{F} a^\mu.
\end{aligned}

The directional derivative is
\label{eqn:reciprocalblog:920}
\begin{aligned}
\lim_{\epsilon \rightarrow 0}
\frac{F(x + \epsilon a) – F(x)}{\epsilon}
&=
\lim_{\epsilon \rightarrow 0}\,
a^\mu
\PD{\lr{x^\mu + \epsilon a^\mu}}{F} \\
&=
a^\mu
\PD{x^\mu}{F} \\
&=
\lr{a^\nu \gamma_\nu} \cdot \gamma^\mu \PD{x^\mu}{F} \\
&=
a \cdot \lr{ \gamma^\mu \partial_\mu } F.
\end{aligned}

## Curvilinear bases.

Curvilinear bases are the foundation of the fundamental theorem of multivector calculus. This form of integral calculus is defined over parameterized surfaces (called manifolds) that satisfy some specific non-degeneracy and continuity requirements.

A parameterized vector $$x(u,v, \cdots w)$$ can be thought of as tracing out a hypersurface (curve, surface, volume, …), where the dimension of the hypersurface depends on the number of parameters. At each point, a bases can be constructed from the differentials of the parameterized vector. Such a basis is called the tangent space to the surface at the point in question. Our curvilinear bases will be related to these differentials. We will also be interested in a dual basis that is restricted to the span of the tangent space. This dual basis will be called the reciprocal frame, and line the basis of the tangent space itself, also varies from point to point on the surface.

Fig 1a. One parameter curve, with illustration of tangent space along the curve.

Fig 1b. Two parameter surface, with illustration of tangent space along the surface.

One and two parameter spaces are illustrated in fig. 1a, and 1b.  The tangent space basis at a specific point of a two parameter surface, $$x(u^0, u^1)$$, is illustrated in fig. 1. The differential directions that span the tangent space are
\label{eqn:reciprocalblog:1040}
\begin{aligned}
d\Bx_0 &= \PD{u^0}{x} du^0 \\
d\Bx_1 &= \PD{u^1}{x} du^1,
\end{aligned}

and the tangent space itself is $$\mbox{Span}\setlr{ d\Bx_0, d\Bx_1 }$$. We may form an oriented surface area element $$d\Bx_0 \wedge d\Bx_1$$ over this surface.

Fig 2. Two parameter surface.

Tangent spaces associated with 3 or more parameters cannot be easily visualized in three dimensions, but the idea generalizes algebraically without trouble.

## Definition 1.5: Tangent basis and space.

Given a parameterization $$x = x(u^0, \cdots, u^N)$$, where $$N < 4$$, the span of the vectors
\label{eqn:reciprocalblog:2120}
\Bx_\mu = \PD{u^\mu}{x},

is called the tangent space for the hypersurface associated with the parameterization, and it’s basis is
$$\setlr{ \Bx_\mu }$$.

Later we will see that parameterization constraints must be imposed, as not all surfaces generated by a set of parameterizations are useful for integration theory. In particular, degenerate parameterizations for which the wedge products of the tangent space basis vectors are zero, or those wedge products cannot be inverted, are not physically meaningful. Properly behaved surfaces of this sort are called manifolds.

Having introduced curvilinear coordinates associated with a parameterization, we can now determine the form of the gradient with respect to a parameterization of spacetime.

## Theorem 1.4: Gradient, curvilinear representation.

Given a spacetime parameterization $$x = x(u^0, u^1, u^2, u^3)$$, the gradient with respect to the parameters $$u^\mu$$ is
\label{eqn:reciprocalblog:2140}
\PD{u^\mu}{},

where
\label{eqn:reciprocalblog:2160}

The vectors $$\Bx^\mu$$ are called the reciprocal frame vectors, and the ordered set $$\setlr{ \Bx^0, \Bx^1, \Bx^2, \Bx^3 }$$ is called the reciprocal basis.It is convenient to define $$\partial_\mu \equiv \PDi{u^\mu}{}$$, so that the gradient can be expressed in mixed index representation
\label{eqn:reciprocalblog:2180}

This introduces some notational ambiguity, since we used $$\partial_\mu = \PDi{x^\mu}{}$$ for the standard basis derivative operators too, but we will be careful to be explicit when there is any doubt about what is intended.

### Start proof:

The proof follows by application of the chain rule.
\label{eqn:reciprocalblog:960}
\begin{aligned}
&=
\gamma^\alpha \PD{x^\alpha}{F} \\
&=
\gamma^\alpha
\PD{x^\alpha}{u^\mu}
\PD{u^\mu}{F} \\
&=
\lr{ \grad u^\mu } \PD{u^\mu}{F} \\
&=
\Bx^\mu \PD{u^\mu}{F}.
\end{aligned}

## Theorem 1.5: Reciprocal relationship.

The vectors $$\Bx^\mu = \grad u^\mu$$, and $$\Bx_\mu = \PDi{u^\mu}{x}$$ satisfy the reciprocal relationship
\label{eqn:reciprocalblog:2200}
\Bx^\mu \cdot \Bx_\nu = {\delta^\mu}_\nu.

### Start proof:

\label{eqn:reciprocalblog:1020}
\begin{aligned}
\Bx^\mu \cdot \Bx_\nu
&=
\PD{u^\nu}{x} \\
&=
\lr{
\gamma^\alpha \PD{x^\alpha}{u^\mu}
}
\cdot
\lr{
\PD{u^\nu}{x^\beta} \gamma_\beta
} \\
&=
{\delta^\alpha}_\beta \PD{x^\alpha}{u^\mu}
\PD{u^\nu}{x^\beta} \\
&=
\PD{x^\alpha}{u^\mu} \PD{u^\nu}{x^\alpha} \\
&=
\PD{u^\nu}{u^\mu} \\
&=
{\delta^\mu}_\nu
.
\end{aligned}

### End proof.

It is instructive to consider an example. Here is a parameterization that scales the proper time parameter, and uses polar coordinates in the $$x-y$$ plane.

## Problem: Compute the curvilinear and reciprocal basis.

Given
\label{eqn:reciprocalblog:2360}
x(t,\rho,\theta,z) = c t \gamma_0 + \gamma_1 \rho e^{i \theta} + z \gamma_3,

where $$i = \gamma_1 \gamma_2$$, compute the curvilinear frame vectors and their reciprocals.

The frame vectors are all easy to compute
\label{eqn:reciprocalblog:1180}
\begin{aligned}
\Bx_0 &= \PD{t}{x} = c \gamma_0 \\
\Bx_1 &= \PD{\rho}{x} = \gamma_1 e^{i \theta} \\
\Bx_2 &= \PD{\theta}{x} = \rho \gamma_1 \gamma_1 \gamma_2 e^{i \theta} = – \rho \gamma_2 e^{i \theta} \\
\Bx_3 &= \PD{z}{x} = \gamma_3.
\end{aligned}

The $$\Bx_1$$ vector is radial, $$\Bx^2$$ is perpendicular to that tangent to the same unit circle, as plotted in fig 3.

Fig3: Tangent space direction vectors.

All of these particular frame vectors happen to be mutually perpendicular, something that will not generally be true for a more arbitrary parameterization.

To compute the reciprocal frame vectors, we must express our parameters in terms of $$x^\mu$$ coordinates, and use implicit integration techniques to deal with the coupling of the rotational terms. First observe that
\label{eqn:reciprocalblog:1200}
\gamma_1 e^{i\theta}
= \gamma_1 \lr{ \cos\theta + \gamma_1 \gamma_2 \sin\theta }
= \gamma_1 \cos\theta – \gamma_2 \sin\theta,

so
\label{eqn:reciprocalblog:1220}
\begin{aligned}
x^0 &= c t \\
x^1 &= \rho \cos\theta \\
x^2 &= -\rho \sin\theta \\
x^3 &= z.
\end{aligned}

We can easily evaluate the $$t, z$$ gradients
\label{eqn:reciprocalblog:1240}
\begin{aligned}
\grad t &= \frac{\gamma^1 }{c} \\
\end{aligned}

but the $$\rho, \theta$$ gradients are not as easy. First writing
\label{eqn:reciprocalblog:1260}
\rho^2 = \lr{x^1}^2 + \lr{x^2}^2,

we find
\label{eqn:reciprocalblog:1280}
\begin{aligned}
&= 2 \rho \lr{ \cos\theta \gamma^1 – \sin\theta \gamma^2 } \\
&= 2 \rho \gamma^1 \lr{ \cos\theta – \gamma_1 \gamma^2 \sin\theta } \\
&= 2 \rho \gamma^1 e^{i\theta},
\end{aligned}

so
\label{eqn:reciprocalblog:1300}

For the $$\theta$$ gradient, we can write
\label{eqn:reciprocalblog:1320}
\tan\theta = -\frac{x^2}{x^1},

so
\label{eqn:reciprocalblog:1340}
\begin{aligned}
&= -\frac{\gamma^2}{x^1} – x^2 \frac{-\gamma^1}{\lr{x^1}^2} \\
&= \inv{\lr{x^1}^2} \lr{ – \gamma^2 x^1 + \gamma^1 x^2 } \\
&= \frac{\rho}{\rho^2 \cos^2\theta } \lr{ – \gamma^2 \cos\theta – \gamma^1 \sin\theta } \\
&= -\frac{1}{\rho \cos^2\theta } \gamma^2 \lr{ \cos\theta + \gamma_2 \gamma^1 \sin\theta } \\
&= -\frac{\gamma^2 e^{i\theta} }{\rho \cos^2\theta },
\end{aligned}

or
\label{eqn:reciprocalblog:1360}

In summary,
\label{eqn:reciprocalblog:1380}
\begin{aligned}
\Bx^0 &= \frac{\gamma^0}{c} \\
\Bx^1 &= \gamma^1 e^{i\theta} \\
\Bx^2 &= -\inv{\rho} \gamma^2 e^{i\theta} \\
\Bx^3 &= \gamma^3.
\end{aligned}

Despite being a fairly simple parameterization, it was still fairly difficult to solve for the gradients when the parameterization introduced coupling between the coordinates. In this particular case, we could have solved for the parameters in terms of the coordinates (but it was easier not to), but that will not generally be true. We want a less labor intensive strategy to find the reciprocal frame. When we have a full parameterization of spacetime, then we can do this with nothing more than a matrix inversion.

## Theorem 1.6: Reciprocal frame matrix equations.

Given a spacetime basis $$\setlr{\Bx_0, \cdots \Bx_3}$$, let $$[\Bx_\mu]$$ and $$[\Bx^\nu]$$ be column matrices with the coordinates of these vectors and their reciprocals, with respect to the standard basis $$\setlr{\gamma_0, \gamma_1, \gamma_2, \gamma_3 }$$. Let
\label{eqn:reciprocalblog:2220}
A =
\begin{bmatrix}
[\Bx_0] & \cdots & [\Bx_{3}]
\end{bmatrix}
X =
\begin{bmatrix}
[\Bx^0] & \cdots & [\Bx^{3}]
\end{bmatrix}.

The coordinates of the reciprocal frame vectors can be found by solving
\label{eqn:reciprocalblog:2240}
A^\T G X = 1,

where $$G = \text{diag}(1,-1,-1,-1)$$ and the RHS is an $$4 \times 4$$ identity matrix.

### Start proof:

Let $$\Bx_\mu = {a_\mu}^\alpha \gamma_\alpha, \Bx^\nu = b^{\nu\beta} \gamma_\beta$$, so that
\label{eqn:reciprocalblog:140}
A =
\begin{bmatrix}
{a_\nu}^\mu
\end{bmatrix},

and
\label{eqn:reciprocalblog:160}
X =
\begin{bmatrix}
b^{\nu\mu}
\end{bmatrix},

where $$\mu \in [0,3]$$ are the row indexes and $$\nu \in [0,N-1]$$ are the column indexes. The reciprocal frame satisfies $$\Bx_\mu \cdot \Bx^\nu = {\delta_\mu}^\nu$$, which has the coordinate representation of
\label{eqn:reciprocalblog:180}
\begin{aligned}
\Bx_\mu \cdot \Bx^\nu
&=
\lr{
{a_\mu}^\alpha \gamma_\alpha
}
\cdot
\lr{
b^{\nu\beta} \gamma_\beta
} \\
&=
{a_\mu}^\alpha
\eta_{\alpha\beta}
b^{\nu\beta} \\
&=
{[A^\T G B]_\mu}^\nu,
\end{aligned}

where $$\mu$$ is the row index and $$\nu$$ is the column index.

## Problem: Matrix inversion reciprocals.

For the parameterization of \ref{eqn:reciprocalblog:2360}, find the reciprocal frame vectors by matrix inversion.

We expanded $$\Bx_1$$ explicitly in \ref{eqn:reciprocalblog:1200}. Doing the same for $$\Bx_2$$, we have
\label{eqn:reciprocalblog:1201}
\Bx_2 =
-\rho \gamma_2 e^{i\theta}
= -\rho \gamma_2 \lr{ \cos\theta + \gamma_1 \gamma_2 \sin\theta }
= – \rho \lr{ \gamma_2 \cos\theta + \gamma_1 \sin\theta}.

Reading off the coordinates of our frame vectors, we have
\label{eqn:reciprocalblog:1400}
X =
\begin{bmatrix}
c & 0 & 0 & 0 \\
0 & C & -\rho S & 0 \\
0 & -S & -\rho C & 0 \\
0 & 0 & 0 & 1 \\
\end{bmatrix},

where $$C = \cos\theta$$ and $$S = \sin\theta$$. We want
\label{eqn:reciprocalblog:1420}
Y =
{\begin{bmatrix}
c & 0 & 0 & 0 \\
0 & -C & S & 0 \\
0 & \rho S & \rho C & 0 \\
0 & 0 & 0 & -1 \\
\end{bmatrix}}^{-1}
=
\begin{bmatrix}
\inv{c} & 0 & 0 & 0 \\
0 & -C & \frac{S}{\rho} & 0 \\
0 & S & \frac{C}{\rho} & 0 \\
0 & 0 & 0 & -1 \\
\end{bmatrix}.

We can read off the coordinates of the reciprocal frame vectors
\label{eqn:reciprocalblog:1440}
\begin{aligned}
\Bx^0 &= \inv{c} \gamma_0 \\
\Bx^1 &= -\cos\theta \gamma_1 + \sin\theta \gamma_2 \\
\Bx^2 &= \inv{\rho} \lr{ \sin\theta \gamma_1 + \cos\theta \gamma_2 } \\
\Bx^3 &= -\gamma_3.
\end{aligned}

Factoring out $$\gamma^1$$ from the $$\Bx^1$$ terms, we find
\label{eqn:reciprocalblog:1460}
\begin{aligned}
\Bx^1
&= -\cos\theta \gamma_1 + \sin\theta \gamma_2 \\
&= \gamma^1 \lr{ \cos\theta + \gamma_1 \gamma_2 \sin\theta } \\
&= \gamma^1 e^{i\theta}.
\end{aligned}

Similarly for $$\Bx^2$$,
\label{eqn:reciprocalblog:1480}
\begin{aligned}
\Bx^2
&= \inv{\rho} \lr{ \sin\theta \gamma_1 + \cos\theta \gamma_2 } \\
&= \frac{\gamma^2}{\rho} \lr{ \sin\theta \gamma_2 \gamma_1 – \cos\theta } \\
&= -\frac{\gamma^2}{\rho} e^{i\theta}.
\end{aligned}

This matches \ref{eqn:reciprocalblog:1380}, as expected, but required only algebraic work to compute.

There will be circumstances where we parameterize only a subset of spacetime, and are interested in calculating quantities associated with such a surface. For example, suppose that
\label{eqn:reciprocalblog:1500}
x(\rho,\theta) = \gamma_1 \rho e^{i \theta},

where $$i = \gamma_1 \gamma_2$$ as before. We are now parameterizing only the $$x-y$$ plane. We will still find
\label{eqn:reciprocalblog:1520}
\begin{aligned}
\Bx_1 &= \gamma_1 e^{i \theta} \\
\Bx_2 &= -\gamma_2 \rho e^{i \theta}.
\end{aligned}

We can compute the reciprocals of these vectors using the gradient method. It’s possible to state matrix equations representing the reciprocal relationship of \ref{eqn:reciprocalblog:2200}, which, in this case, is $$X^\T G Y = 1$$, where the RHS is a $$2 \times 2$$ identity matrix, and $$X, Y$$ are $$4\times 2$$ matrices of coordinates, with
\label{eqn:reciprocalblog:1540}
X =
\begin{bmatrix}
0 & 0 \\
C & -\rho S \\
-S & -\rho C \\
0 & 0
\end{bmatrix}.

We no longer have a square matrix problem to solve, and our solution set is multivalued. In particular, this matrix equation has solutions
\label{eqn:reciprocalblog:1560}
\begin{aligned}
\Bx^1 &= \gamma^1 e^{i\theta} + \alpha \gamma^0 + \beta \gamma^3 \\
\Bx^2 &= -\frac{\gamma^2}{\rho} e^{i\theta} + \alpha’ \gamma^0 + \beta’ \gamma^3.
\end{aligned}

where $$\alpha, \alpha’, \beta, \beta’$$ are arbitrary constants. In the example we considered, we saw that our $$\rho, \theta$$ parameters were functions of only $$x^1, x^2$$, so taking gradients could not introduce any $$\gamma^0, \gamma^3$$ dependence in $$\Bx^1, \Bx^2$$. It seems reasonable to assert that we seek an algebraic method of computing a set of vectors that satisfies the reciprocal relationships, where that set of vectors is restricted to the tangent space. We will need to figure out how to prove that this reciprocal construction is identical to the parameter gradients, but let’s start with figuring out what such a tangent space restricted solution looks like.

## Theorem 1.7: Reciprocal frame for two parameter subspace.

Given two vectors, $$\Bx_1, \Bx_2$$, the vectors $$\Bx^1, \Bx^2 \in \mbox{Span}\setlr{ \Bx_1, \Bx_2 }$$ such that $$\Bx^\mu \cdot \Bx_\nu = {\delta^\mu}_\nu$$ are given by
\label{eqn:reciprocalblog:2260}
\begin{aligned}
\Bx^1 &= \Bx_2 \cdot \inv{\Bx_1 \wedge \Bx_2} \\
\Bx^2 &= -\Bx_1 \cdot \inv{\Bx_1 \wedge \Bx_2},
\end{aligned}

provided $$\Bx_1 \wedge \Bx_2 \ne 0$$ and
$$\lr{ \Bx_1 \wedge \Bx_2 }^2 \ne 0$$.

### Start proof:

The most general set of vectors that satisfy the span constraint are
\label{eqn:reciprocalblog:1580}
\begin{aligned}
\Bx^1 &= a \Bx_1 + b \Bx_2 \\
\Bx^2 &= c \Bx_1 + d \Bx_2.
\end{aligned}

We can use wedge products with either $$\Bx_1$$ or $$\Bx_2$$ to eliminate the other from the RHS
\label{eqn:reciprocalblog:1600}
\begin{aligned}
\Bx^1 \wedge \Bx_2 &= a \lr{ \Bx_1 \wedge \Bx_2 } \\
\Bx^1 \wedge \Bx_1 &= – b \lr{ \Bx_1 \wedge \Bx_2 } \\
\Bx^2 \wedge \Bx_2 &= c \lr{ \Bx_1 \wedge \Bx_2 } \\
\Bx^2 \wedge \Bx_1 &= – d \lr{ \Bx_1 \wedge \Bx_2 },
\end{aligned}

and then dot both sides with $$\Bx_1 \wedge \Bx_2$$ to produce four scalar equations
\label{eqn:reciprocalblog:1640}
\begin{aligned}
a \lr{ \Bx_1 \wedge \Bx_2 }^2
&= \lr{ \Bx^1 \wedge \Bx_2 } \cdot \lr{ \Bx_1 \wedge \Bx_2 } \\
&=
\lr{ \Bx_2 \cdot \Bx_1 } \lr{ \Bx^1 \cdot \Bx_2 }

\lr{ \Bx_2 \cdot \Bx_2 } \lr{ \Bx^1 \cdot \Bx_1 } \\
&=
\lr{ \Bx_2 \cdot \Bx_1 } (0)

\lr{ \Bx_2 \cdot \Bx_2 } (1) \\
&= – \Bx_2 \cdot \Bx_2
\end{aligned}

\label{eqn:reciprocalblog:1660}
\begin{aligned}
– b \lr{ \Bx_1 \wedge \Bx_2 }^2
&=
\lr{ \Bx^1 \wedge \Bx_1 } \cdot \lr{ \Bx_1 \wedge \Bx_2 } \\
&=
\lr{ \Bx^1 \cdot \Bx_2 } \lr{ \Bx_1 \cdot \Bx_1 }

\lr{ \Bx^1 \cdot \Bx_1 } \lr{ \Bx_1 \cdot \Bx_2 } \\
&=
(0) \lr{ \Bx_1 \cdot \Bx_1 }

(1) \lr{ \Bx_1 \cdot \Bx_2 } \\
&= – \Bx_1 \cdot \Bx_2
\end{aligned}

\label{eqn:reciprocalblog:1680}
\begin{aligned}
c \lr{ \Bx_1 \wedge \Bx_2 }^2
&= \lr{ \Bx^2 \wedge \Bx_2 } \cdot \lr{ \Bx_1 \wedge \Bx_2 } \\
&=
\lr{ \Bx_2 \cdot \Bx_1 } \lr{ \Bx^2 \cdot \Bx_2 }

\lr{ \Bx_2 \cdot \Bx_2 } \lr{ \Bx^2 \cdot \Bx_1 } \\
&=
\lr{ \Bx_2 \cdot \Bx_1 } (1)

\lr{ \Bx_2 \cdot \Bx_2 } (0) \\
&= \Bx_2 \cdot \Bx_1
\end{aligned}

\label{eqn:reciprocalblog:1700}
\begin{aligned}
– d \lr{ \Bx_1 \wedge \Bx_2 }^2
&= \lr{ \Bx^2 \wedge \Bx_1 } \cdot \lr{ \Bx_1 \wedge \Bx_2 } \\
&=
\lr{ \Bx_1 \cdot \Bx_1 } \lr{ \Bx^2 \cdot \Bx_2 }

\lr{ \Bx_1 \cdot \Bx_2 } \lr{ \Bx^2 \cdot \Bx_1 } \\
&=
\lr{ \Bx_1 \cdot \Bx_1 } (1)

\lr{ \Bx_1 \cdot \Bx_2 } (0) \\
&= \Bx_1 \cdot \Bx_1.
\end{aligned}

Putting the pieces together we have
\label{eqn:reciprocalblog:1740}
\begin{aligned}
\Bx^1
&= \frac{ – \lr{ \Bx_2 \cdot \Bx_2 } \Bx_1 + \lr{ \Bx_1 \cdot \Bx_2 } \Bx_2
}{\lr{\Bx_1 \wedge \Bx_2}^2} \\
&=
\frac{
\Bx_2 \cdot \lr{ \Bx_1 \wedge \Bx_2 }
}{\lr{\Bx_1 \wedge \Bx_2}^2} \\
&=
\Bx_2 \cdot \inv{\Bx_1 \wedge \Bx_2}
\end{aligned}

\label{eqn:reciprocalblog:1760}
\begin{aligned}
\Bx^2
&=
\frac{ \lr{ \Bx_1 \cdot \Bx_2 } \Bx_1 – \lr{ \Bx_1 \cdot \Bx_1 } \Bx_2
}{\lr{\Bx_1 \wedge \Bx_2}^2} \\
&=
\frac{ -\Bx_1 \cdot \lr{ \Bx_1 \wedge \Bx_2 } }
{\lr{\Bx_1 \wedge \Bx_2}^2} \\
&=
-\Bx_1 \cdot \inv{\Bx_1 \wedge \Bx_2}
\end{aligned}

## Lemma 1.1: Distribution identity.

Given k-vectors $$B, C$$ and a vector $$a$$, where the grade of $$C$$ is greater than that of $$B$$, then
\label{eqn:reciprocalblog:2280}
\lr{a \wedge B} \cdot C = a \cdot \lr{ B \cdot C }.

See [1] for a proof.

## Theorem 1.8: Higher order tangent space reciprocals.

Given an $$N$$ parameter tangent space with basis $$\setlr{ \Bx_0, \Bx_1, \cdots \Bx_{N-1} }$$, the reciprocals are given by
\label{eqn:reciprocalblog:2300}
\Bx^\mu = (-1)^\mu
\lr{ \Bx_0 \wedge \cdots \check{\Bx_\mu} \cdots \wedge \Bx_{N-1} } \cdot I_N^{-1},

where the checked term ($$\check{\Bx_\mu}$$) indicates that all terms are included in the wedges except the $$\Bx_\mu$$ term, and $$I_N = \Bx_0 \wedge \cdots \Bx_{N-1}$$ is the pseudoscalar for the tangent space.

### Start proof:

I’ll outline the proof for the three parameter tangent space case, from which the pattern will be clear. The motivation for this proof is a reexamination of the algebraic structure of the two vector solution. Suppose we have a tangent space basis $$\setlr{\Bx_0, \Bx_1}$$, for which we’ve shown that
\label{eqn:reciprocalblog:1860}
\begin{aligned}
\Bx^0
&= \Bx_1 \cdot \inv{\Bx_0 \wedge \Bx_1} \\
&= \frac{\Bx_1 \cdot \lr{\Bx_0 \wedge \Bx_1} }{\lr{ \Bx_0 \wedge \Bx_1}^2 }.
\end{aligned}

If we dot with $$\Bx_0$$ and $$\Bx_1$$ respectively, we find
\label{eqn:reciprocalblog:1800}
\begin{aligned}
\Bx_0 \cdot \Bx^0
&=
\Bx_0 \cdot \frac{ \Bx_1 \cdot \lr{ \Bx_0 \wedge \Bx_1 } }{\lr{ \Bx_0 \wedge \Bx_1}^2 } \\
&=
\lr{ \Bx_0 \wedge \Bx_1 } \cdot \frac{ \Bx_0 \wedge \Bx_1 }{\lr{ \Bx_0 \wedge \Bx_1}^2 }.
\end{aligned}

We end up with unity as expected. Here the
“factored” out vector is reincorporated into the pseudoscalar using the distribution identity \ref{eqn:reciprocalblog:2280}.
Similarly, dotting with $$\Bx_1$$, we find
\label{eqn:reciprocalblog:0810}
\begin{aligned}
\Bx_1 \cdot \Bx^0
&=
\Bx_1 \cdot \frac{ \Bx_1 \cdot \lr{ \Bx_0 \wedge \Bx_1 } }{\lr{ \Bx_0 \wedge \Bx_1}^2 } \\
&=
\lr{ \Bx_1 \wedge \Bx_1 } \cdot \frac{ \Bx_0 \wedge \Bx_1 }{\lr{ \Bx_0 \wedge \Bx_1}^2 }.
\end{aligned}

This is zero, since wedging a vector with itself is zero. We can perform such an operation in reverse, taking the square of the tangent space pseudoscalar, and factoring out one of the basis vectors. After this, division by that squared pseudoscalar will normalize things.

For a three parameter tangent space with basis $$\setlr{ \Bx_0, \Bx_1, \Bx_2 }$$, we can factor out any of the tangent vectors like so
\label{eqn:reciprocalblog:1880}
\begin{aligned}
\lr{ \Bx_0 \wedge \Bx_1 \wedge \Bx_2 }^2
&= \Bx_0 \cdot \lr{ \lr{ \Bx_1 \wedge \Bx_2 } \cdot \lr{ \Bx_0 \wedge \Bx_1 \wedge \Bx_2 } } \\
&= (-1) \Bx_1 \cdot \lr{ \lr{ \Bx_0 \wedge \Bx_2 } \cdot \lr{ \Bx_0 \wedge \Bx_1 \wedge \Bx_2 } } \\
&= (-1)^2 \Bx_2 \cdot \lr{ \lr{ \Bx_0 \wedge \Bx_1 } \cdot \lr{ \Bx_0 \wedge \Bx_1 \wedge \Bx_2 } }.
\end{aligned}

The toggling of sign reflects the number of permutations required to move the vector of interest to the front of the wedge sequence. Having factored out any one of the vectors, we can rearrange to find that vector that is it’s inverse and perpendicular to all the others.
\label{eqn:reciprocalblog:1900}
\begin{aligned}
\Bx^0 &= (-1)^0 \lr{ \Bx_1 \wedge \Bx_2 } \cdot \inv{ \Bx_0 \wedge \Bx_1 \wedge \Bx_2 } \\
\Bx^1 &= (-1)^1 \lr{ \Bx_0 \wedge \Bx_2 } \cdot \inv{ \Bx_0 \wedge \Bx_1 \wedge \Bx_2 } \\
\Bx^2 &= (-1)^2 \lr{ \Bx_0 \wedge \Bx_1 } \cdot \inv{ \Bx_0 \wedge \Bx_1 \wedge \Bx_2 }.
\end{aligned}

### End proof.

In the fashion above, should we want the reciprocal frame for all of spacetime given dimension 4 tangent space, we can state it trivially
\label{eqn:reciprocalblog:1920}
\begin{aligned}
\Bx^0 &= (-1)^0 \lr{ \Bx_1 \wedge \Bx_2 \wedge \Bx_3 } \cdot \inv{ \Bx_0 \wedge \Bx_1 \wedge \Bx_2 \wedge \Bx_3 } \\
\Bx^1 &= (-1)^1 \lr{ \Bx_0 \wedge \Bx_2 \wedge \Bx_3 } \cdot \inv{ \Bx_0 \wedge \Bx_1 \wedge \Bx_2 \wedge \Bx_3 } \\
\Bx^2 &= (-1)^2 \lr{ \Bx_0 \wedge \Bx_1 \wedge \Bx_3 } \cdot \inv{ \Bx_0 \wedge \Bx_1 \wedge \Bx_2 \wedge \Bx_3 } \\
\Bx^3 &= (-1)^3 \lr{ \Bx_0 \wedge \Bx_1 \wedge \Bx_2 } \cdot \inv{ \Bx_0 \wedge \Bx_1 \wedge \Bx_2 \wedge \Bx_3 }.
\end{aligned}

This is probably not an efficient way to compute all these reciprocals, since we can utilize a single matrix inversion to solve them in one shot. However, there are theoretical advantages to this construction that will be useful when we get to integration theory.

### On degeneracy.

A small mention of degeneracy was mentioned above. Regardless of metric, $$\Bx_0 \wedge \Bx_1 = 0$$ means that this pair of vectors are colinear. A tangent space with such a pseudoscalar is clearly undesirable, and we must construct parameterizations for which the area element is non-zero in all regions of interest.

Things get more interesting in mixed signature spaces where we can have vectors that square to zero (i.e. lightlike). If the tangent space pseudoscalar has a lightlike factor, then that pseudoscalar will not be invertible. Such a degeneracy will will likely lead to many other troubles, and parameterizations of this sort should be avoided.

This following problem illustrates an example of this sort of degenerate parameterization.

## Problem: Degenerate surface parameterization.

Given a spacetime plane parameterization $$x(u,v) = u a + v b$$, where
\label{eqn:reciprocalblog:480}
a = \gamma_0 + \gamma_1 + \gamma_2 + \gamma_3,

\label{eqn:reciprocalblog:500}
b = \gamma_0 – \gamma_1 + \gamma_2 – \gamma_3,

show that this is a degenerate parameterization, and find the bivector that represents the tangent space. Are these vectors lightlike, spacelike, or timelike? Comment on whether this parameterization represents a physically relevant spacetime surface.

To characterize the vectors, we square them
\label{eqn:reciprocalblog:1080}
a^2 = b^2 =
\gamma_0^2 +
\gamma_1^2 +
\gamma_2^2 +
\gamma_3^2
=
1 – 3
= -2,

so $$a, b$$ are both spacelike vectors. The tangent space is clearly just $$\mbox{Span}\setlr{ a, b } = \mbox{Span}\setlr{ e, f }$$ where
\label{eqn:reciprocalblog:1100}
\begin{aligned}
e &= \gamma_0 + \gamma_2 \\
f &= \gamma_1 + \gamma_3.
\end{aligned}

Observe that $$a = e + f, b = e – f$$, and $$e$$ is lightlike ($$e^2 = 0$$), whereas $$f$$ is spacelike ($$f^2 = -2$$), and $$e \cdot f = 0$$, so $$e f = – f e$$. The bivector for the tangent plane is
\label{eqn:reciprocalblog:1120}
a b
}
=
(e + f) (e – f)
}
=
e^2 – f^2 – 2 e f
}
= -2 e f,

where
\label{eqn:reciprocalblog:1140}
e f = \gamma_{01} + \gamma_{21} + \gamma_{23} + \gamma_{03}.

Because $$e$$ is lightlike (zero square), and $$e f = – f e$$,
the bivector $$e f$$ squares to zero
\label{eqn:reciprocalblog:1780}
\lr{ e f }^2
= -e^2 f^2
= 0,

which shows that the parameterization is degenerate.

This parameterization can also be expressed as
\label{eqn:reciprocalblog:1160}
x(u,v)
= u ( e + f ) + v ( e – f )
= (u + v) e + (u – v) f,

a linear combination of a lightlike and spacelike vector. Intuitively, we expect that a physically meaningful spacetime surface involves linear combinations spacelike vectors, or combinations of a timelike vector with spacelike vectors. This beastie is something entirely different.

### Final notes.

There are a few loose ends above. In particular, we haven’t conclusively proven that the set of reciprocal vectors $$\Bx^\mu = \grad u^\mu$$ are exactly those obtained through algebraic means. For a full parameterization of spacetime, they are necessarily the same, since both are unique. So we know that \ref{eqn:reciprocalblog:1920} must equal the reciprocals obtained by evaluating the gradient for a full parameterization (and this must also equal the reciprocals that we can obtain through matrix inversion.) We have also not proved explicitly that the three parameter construction of the reciprocals in \ref{eqn:reciprocalblog:1900} is in the tangent space, but that is a fairly trivial observation, so that can be left as an exercise for the reader dismissal. Some additional thought about this is probably required, but it seems reasonable to put that on the back burner and move on to some applications.

# References

[1] Peeter Joot. Geometric Algebra for Electrical Engineers. Kindle Direct Publishing, 2019.

## Potential solutions to the static Maxwell’s equation using geometric algebra

When neither the electromagnetic field strength $$F = \BE + I \eta \BH$$, nor current $$J = \eta (c \rho – \BJ) + I(c\rho_m – \BM)$$ is a function of time, then the geometric algebra form of Maxwell’s equations is the first order multivector (gradient) equation
\label{eqn:staticPotentials:20}

While direct solutions to this equations are possible with the multivector Green’s function for the gradient
\label{eqn:staticPotentials:40}
G(\Bx, \Bx’) = \inv{4\pi} \frac{\Bx – \Bx’}{\Norm{\Bx – \Bx’}^3 },

the aim in this post is to explore second order (potential) solutions in a geometric algebra context. Can we assume that it is possible to find a multivector potential $$A$$ for which
\label{eqn:staticPotentials:60}

is a solution to the Maxwell statics equation? If such a solution exists, then Maxwell’s equation is simply
\label{eqn:staticPotentials:80}

which can be easily solved using the scalar Green’s function for the Laplacian
\label{eqn:staticPotentials:240}
G(\Bx, \Bx’) = -\inv{\Norm{\Bx – \Bx’} },

a beastie that may be easier to convolve than the vector valued Green’s function for the gradient.

It is immediately clear that some restrictions must be imposed on the multivector potential $$A$$. In particular, since the field $$F$$ has only vector and bivector grades, this gradient must have no scalar, nor pseudoscalar grades. That is
\label{eqn:staticPotentials:100}

This constraint on the potential can be avoided if a grade selection operation is built directly into the assumed potential solution, requiring that the field is given by
\label{eqn:staticPotentials:120}

However, after imposing such a constraint, Maxwell’s equation has a much less friendly form
\label{eqn:staticPotentials:140}

Luckily, it is possible to introduce a transformation of potentials, called a gauge transformation, that eliminates the ugly grade selection term, and allows the potential equation to be expressed as a plain old Laplacian. We do so by assuming first that it is possible to find a solution of the Laplacian equation that has the desired grade restrictions. That is
\label{eqn:staticPotentials:160}
\begin{aligned}
\end{aligned}

for which $$F = \spacegrad A’$$ is a grade 1,2 solution to $$\spacegrad F = J$$. Suppose that $$A$$ is any formal solution, free of any grade restrictions, to $$\spacegrad^2 A = J$$, and $$F = \gpgrade{\spacegrad A}{1,2}$$. Can we find a function $$\tilde{A}$$ for which $$A = A’ + \tilde{A}$$?

Maxwell’s equation in terms of $$A$$ is
\label{eqn:staticPotentials:180}
\begin{aligned}
J
\end{aligned}

or
\label{eqn:staticPotentials:200}

This non-homogeneous Laplacian equation that can be solved as is for $$\tilde{A}$$ using the Green’s function for the Laplacian. Alternatively, we may also solve the equivalent first order system using the Green’s function for the gradient.
\label{eqn:staticPotentials:220}

Clearly $$\tilde{A}$$ is not unique, as we can add any function $$\psi$$ satisfying the homogeneous Laplacian equation $$\spacegrad^2 \psi = 0$$.

In summary, if $$A$$ is any multivector solution to $$\spacegrad^2 A = J$$, that is
\label{eqn:staticPotentials:260}
A(\Bx)
= \int dV’ G(\Bx, \Bx’) J(\Bx’)
= -\int dV’ \frac{J(\Bx’)}{\Norm{\Bx – \Bx’} },

then $$F = \spacegrad A’$$ is a solution to Maxwell’s equation, where $$A’ = A – \tilde{A}$$, and $$\tilde{A}$$ is a solution to the non-homogeneous Laplacian equation or the non-homogeneous gradient equation above.

### Integral form of the gauge transformation.

Additional insight is possible by considering the gauge transformation in integral form. Suppose that
\label{eqn:staticPotentials:280}
A(\Bx) = -\int_V dV’ \frac{J(\Bx’)}{\Norm{\Bx – \Bx’} } – \tilde{A}(\Bx),

is a solution of $$\spacegrad^2 A = J$$, where $$\tilde{A}$$ is a multivector solution to the homogeneous Laplacian equation $$\spacegrad^2 \tilde{A} = 0$$. Let’s look at the constraints on $$\tilde{A}$$ that must be imposed for $$F = \spacegrad A$$ to be a valid (i.e. grade 1,2) solution of Maxwell’s equation.
\label{eqn:staticPotentials:300}
\begin{aligned}
F
&=
-\int_V dV’ \lr{ \spacegrad \inv{\Norm{\Bx – \Bx’} } } J(\Bx’)
&=
\int_V dV’ \lr{ \spacegrad’ \inv{\Norm{\Bx – \Bx’} } } J(\Bx’)
&=
\int_V dV’ \spacegrad’ \frac{J(\Bx’)}{\Norm{\Bx – \Bx’} } – \int_V dV’ \frac{\spacegrad’ J(\Bx’)}{\Norm{\Bx – \Bx’} }
&=
\int_{\partial V} dA’ \ncap’ \frac{J(\Bx’)}{\Norm{\Bx – \Bx’} } – \int_V \frac{\spacegrad’ J(\Bx’)}{\Norm{\Bx – \Bx’} }
\end{aligned}

Where $$\ncap’ = (\Bx’ – \Bx)/\Norm{\Bx’ – \Bx}$$, and the fundamental theorem of geometric calculus has been used to transform the gradient volume integral into an integral over the bounding surface. Operating on Maxwell’s equation with the gradient gives $$\spacegrad^2 F = \spacegrad J$$, which has only grades 1,2 on the left hand side, meaning that $$J$$ is constrained in a way that requires $$\spacegrad J$$ to have only grades 1,2. This means that $$F$$ has grades 1,2 if
\label{eqn:staticPotentials:320}
= \int_{\partial V} dA’ \frac{ \gpgrade{\ncap’ J(\Bx’)}{0,3} }{\Norm{\Bx – \Bx’} }.

The product $$\ncap J$$ expands to
\label{eqn:staticPotentials:340}
\begin{aligned}
\ncap J
&=
&=
\ncap \cdot (-\eta \BJ) + \gpgradethree{\ncap (-I \BM)} \\
&=- \eta \ncap \cdot \BJ -I \ncap \cdot \BM,
\end{aligned}

so
\label{eqn:staticPotentials:360}
Observe that if there is no flux of current density $$\BJ$$ and (fictitious) magnetic current density $$\BM$$ through the surface, then $$F = \spacegrad A$$ is a solution to Maxwell’s equation without any gauge transformation. Alternatively $$F = \spacegrad A$$ is also a solution if $$\lim_{\Bx’ \rightarrow \infty} \BJ(\Bx’)/\Norm{\Bx – \Bx’} = \lim_{\Bx’ \rightarrow \infty} \BM(\Bx’)/\Norm{\Bx – \Bx’} = 0$$ and the bounding volume is taken to infinity.