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### Disclaimer

Peeter’s lecture notes from class. These may be incoherent and rough.

These are notes for the UofT course PHY1520, Graduate Quantum Mechanics, taught by Prof. Paramekanti, covering [1] chap. 1 content.

### Classical mechanics

We’ll be talking about one body physics for most of this course. In classical mechanics we can figure out the particle trajectories using both of $$(\Br, \Bp$$, where

\label{eqn:qmLecture1:20}
\begin{aligned}
\ddt{\Br} &= \inv{m} \Bp \\
\ddt{\Bp} &= \spacegrad V
\end{aligned}

A two dimensional phase space as sketched in fig. 1 shows the trajectory of a point particle subject to some equations of motion

fig. 1. One dimensional classical phase space example

### Quantum mechanics

For this lecture, we’ll work with natural units, setting

\label{eqn:qmLecture1:480}
\boxed{
\Hbar = 1.
}

In QM we are no longer allowed to think of position and momentum, but have to start asking about state vectors $$\ket{\Psi}$$.

We’ll consider the state vector with respect to some basis, for example, in a position basis, we write

\label{eqn:qmLecture1:40}
\braket{ x }{\Psi } = \Psi(x),

a complex numbered “wave function”, the probability amplitude for a particle in $$\ket{\Psi}$$ to be in the vicinity of $$x$$.

We could also consider the state in a momentum basis

\label{eqn:qmLecture1:60}
\braket{ p }{\Psi } = \Psi(p),

a probability amplitude with respect to momentum $$p$$.

More precisely,

\label{eqn:qmLecture1:80}
\Abs{\Psi(x)}^2 dx \ge 0

is the probability of finding the particle in the range $$(x, x + dx )$$. To have meaning as a probability, we require

\label{eqn:qmLecture1:100}
\int_{-\infty}^\infty \Abs{\Psi(x)}^2 dx = 1.

The average position can be calculated using this probability density function. For example

\label{eqn:qmLecture1:120}
\expectation{x} = \int_{-\infty}^\infty \Abs{\Psi(x)}^2 x dx,

or
\label{eqn:qmLecture1:140}
\expectation{f(x)} = \int_{-\infty}^\infty \Abs{\Psi(x)}^2 f(x) dx.

Similarly, calculation of an average of a function of momentum can be expressed as

\label{eqn:qmLecture1:160}
\expectation{f(p)} = \int_{-\infty}^\infty \Abs{\Psi(p)}^2 f(p) dp.

### Transformation from a position to momentum basis

We have a problem, if we which to compute an average in momentum space such as $$\expectation{p}$$, when given a wavefunction $$\Psi(x)$$.

How do we convert

\label{eqn:qmLecture1:180}
\Psi(p)
\stackrel{?}{\leftrightarrow}
\Psi(x),

or equivalently
\label{eqn:qmLecture1:200}
\braket{p}{\Psi}
\stackrel{?}{\leftrightarrow}
\braket{x}{\Psi}.

Such a conversion can be performed by virtue of an the assumption that we have a complete orthonormal basis, for which we can introduce identity operations such as

\label{eqn:qmLecture1:220}
\int_{-\infty}^\infty dp \ket{p}\bra{p} = 1,

or
\label{eqn:qmLecture1:240}
\int_{-\infty}^\infty dx \ket{x}\bra{x} = 1

Some interpretations:

1. $$\ket{x_0} \leftrightarrow \text{sits at} x = x_0$$
2. $$\braket{x}{x’} \leftrightarrow \delta(x – x’)$$
3. $$\braket{p}{p’} \leftrightarrow \delta(p – p’)$$
4. $$\braket{x}{p’} = \frac{e^{i p x}}{\sqrt{V}}$$, where $$V$$ is the volume of the box containing the particle. We’ll define the appropriate normalization for an infinite box volume later.

The delta function interpretation of the braket $$\braket{p}{p’}$$ justifies the identity operator, since we recover any state in the basis when operating with it. For example, in momentum space

\label{eqn:qmLecture1:260}
\begin{aligned}
1 \ket{p}
&=
\lr{ \int_{-\infty}^\infty dp’
\ket{p’}\bra{p’} }
\ket{p} \\
&=
\int_{-\infty}^\infty dp’
\ket{p’}
\braket{p’}{p} \\
&=
\int_{-\infty}^\infty dp’
\ket{p’}
\delta(p – p’) \\
&=
\ket{p}.
\end{aligned}

This also the determination of an integral operator representation for the delta function

\label{eqn:qmLecture1:500}
\begin{aligned}
\delta(x – x’)
&=
\braket{x}{x’} \\
&=
\int dp \braket{x}{p} \braket{p}{x’} \\
&=
\inv{V} \int dp e^{i p x} e^{-i p x’},
\end{aligned}

or

\label{eqn:qmLecture1:520}
\delta(x – x’)
=
\inv{V} \int dp e^{i p (x- x’)}.

Here we used the fact that $$\braket{p}{x} = \braket{x}{p}^\conj$$.

FIXME: do we have a justification for that conjugation with what was defined here so far?

The conversion from a position basis to momentum space is now possible

\label{eqn:qmLecture1:280}
\begin{aligned}
\braket{p}{\Psi}
&= \Psi(p) \\
&= \int_{-\infty}^\infty \braket{p}{x} \braket{x}{\Psi} dx \\
&= \int_{-\infty}^\infty \frac{e^{-ip x}}{\sqrt{V}} \Psi(x) dx.
\end{aligned}

The momentum space to position space conversion can be written as

\label{eqn:qmLecture1:300}
\Psi(x)
= \int_{-\infty}^\infty \frac{e^{ip x}}{\sqrt{V}} \Psi(p) dp.

Now we can go back and figure out the an expectation

\label{eqn:qmLecture1:320}
\begin{aligned}
\expectation{p}
&=
\int \Psi^\conj(p) \Psi(p) p d p \\
&=
\int dp
\lr{
\int_{-\infty}^\infty \frac{e^{ip x}}{\sqrt{V}} \Psi^\conj(x) dx
}
\lr{
\int_{-\infty}^\infty \frac{e^{-ip x’}}{\sqrt{V}} \Psi(x’) dx’
}
p \\
&=\int dp dx dx’
\Psi^\conj(x)
\inv{V} e^{ip (x-x’)} \Psi(x’) p \\
&=
\int dp dx dx’
\Psi^\conj(x)
\inv{V} \lr{ -i\PD{x}{e^{ip (x-x’)}} }\Psi(x’) \\
&=
\int dp dx
\Psi^\conj(x) \lr{ -i \PD{x}{} }
\inv{V} \int dx’ e^{ip (x-x’)} \Psi(x’) \\
&=
\int dx
\Psi^\conj(x) \lr{ -i \PD{x}{} }
\int dx’ \lr{ \inv{V} \int dp e^{ip (x-x’)} } \Psi(x’) \\
&=
\int dx
\Psi^\conj(x) \lr{ -i \PD{x}{} }
\int dx’ \delta(x – x’) \Psi(x’) \\
&=
\int dx
\Psi^\conj(x) \lr{ -i \PD{x}{} }
\Psi(x)
\end{aligned}

Here we’ve essentially calculated the position space representation of the momentum operator, allowing identifications of the following form

\label{eqn:qmLecture1:380}
p \leftrightarrow -i \PD{x}{}

\label{eqn:qmLecture1:400}
p^2 \leftrightarrow – \PDSq{x}{}.

### Alternate starting point.

Most of the above results followed from the claim that $$\braket{x}{p} = e^{i p x}$$. Note that this position space representation of the momentum operator can also be taken as the starting point. Given that, the exponential representation of the position-momentum braket follows

\label{eqn:qmLecture1:540}
\bra{x} P \ket{p}
=
-i \Hbar \PD{x}{} \braket{x}{p},

but $$\bra{x} P \ket{p} = p \braket{x}{p}$$, providing a differential equation for $$\braket{x}{p}$$

\label{eqn:qmLecture1:560}
p \braket{x}{p} = -i \Hbar \PD{x}{} \braket{x}{p},

with solution

\label{eqn:qmLecture1:580}
i p x/\Hbar = \ln \braket{x}{p} + \text{const},

or
\label{eqn:qmLecture1:600}
\braket{x}{p} \propto e^{i p x/\Hbar}.

### Matrix interpretation

1. Ket’s $$\ket{\Psi} \leftrightarrow \text{column vector}$$
2. Bra’s $$\bra{\Psi} \leftrightarrow {(\text{row vector})}^\conj$$
3. Operators $$\leftrightarrow$$ matrices that act on vectors.

\label{eqn:qmLecture1:420}
\hat{p} \ket{\Psi} \rightarrow \ket{\Psi’}

### Time evolution

For a state subject to the equations of motion given by the Hamiltonian operator $$\hat{H}$$

\label{eqn:qmLecture1:440}
i \PD{t}{} \ket{\Psi} = \hat{H} \ket{\Psi},

the time evolution is given by
\label{eqn:qmLecture1:460}
\ket{\Psi(t)} = e^{-i \hat{H} t} \ket{\Psi(0)}.

### Incomplete information

We’ll need to introduce the concept of Density matrices. This will bring us to concepts like entanglement.

# References

[1] Jun John Sakurai and Jim J Napolitano. Modern quantum mechanics. Pearson Higher Ed, 2014.