divergence

Maxwell’s equations in tensor form with magnetic sources

February 22, 2015 ece1229 , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ,

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Following the principle that one should always relate new formalisms to things previously learned, I’d like to know what Maxwell’s equations look like in tensor form when magnetic sources are included. As a verification that the previous Geometric Algebra form of Maxwell’s equation that includes magnetic sources is correct, I’ll start with the GA form of Maxwell’s equation, find the tensor form, and then verify that the vector form of Maxwell’s equations can be recovered from the tensor form.

Tensor form

With four-vector potential \( A \), and bivector electromagnetic field \( F = \grad \wedge A \), the GA form of Maxwell’s equation is

\begin{equation}\label{eqn:gaMagneticSourcesToTensorToVector:20}
\grad F = \frac{J}{\epsilon_0 c} + M I.
\end{equation}

The left hand side can be unpacked into vector and trivector terms \( \grad F = \grad \cdot F + \grad \wedge F \), which happens to also separate the sources nicely as a side effect

\begin{equation}\label{eqn:gaMagneticSourcesToTensorToVector:60}
\grad \cdot F = \frac{J}{\epsilon_0 c}
\end{equation}
\begin{equation}\label{eqn:gaMagneticSourcesToTensorToVector:80}
\grad \wedge F = M I.
\end{equation}

The electric source equation can be unpacked into tensor form by dotting with the four vector basis vectors. With the usual definition \( F^{\alpha \beta} = \partial^\alpha A^\beta – \partial^\beta A^\alpha \), that is

\begin{equation}\label{eqn:gaMagneticSourcesToTensorToVector:100}
\begin{aligned}
\gamma^\mu \cdot \lr{ \grad \cdot F }
&=
\gamma^\mu \cdot \lr{ \grad \cdot \lr{ \grad \wedge A } } \\
&=
\gamma^\mu \cdot \lr{ \gamma^\nu \partial_\nu \cdot
\lr{ \gamma_\alpha \partial^\alpha \wedge \gamma_\beta A^\beta } } \\
&=
\gamma^\mu \cdot \lr{ \gamma^\nu \cdot \lr{ \gamma_\alpha \wedge \gamma_\beta
} } \partial_\nu \partial^\alpha A^\beta \\
&=
\inv{2}
\gamma^\mu \cdot \lr{ \gamma^\nu \cdot \lr{ \gamma_\alpha \wedge \gamma_\beta } }
\partial_\nu F^{\alpha \beta} \\
&=
\inv{2} \delta^{\nu \mu}_{[\alpha \beta]} \partial_\nu F^{\alpha \beta} \\
&=
\inv{2} \partial_\nu F^{\nu \mu}
–
\inv{2} \partial_\nu F^{\mu \nu} \\
&=
\partial_\nu F^{\nu \mu}.
\end{aligned}
\end{equation}

So the first tensor equation is

\begin{equation}\label{eqn:gaMagneticSourcesToTensorToVector:120}
\boxed{
\partial_\nu F^{\nu \mu} = \inv{c \epsilon_0} J^\mu.
}
\end{equation}

To unpack the magnetic source portion of Maxwell’s equation, put it first into dual form, so that it has four vectors on each side

\begin{equation}\label{eqn:gaMagneticSourcesToTensorToVector:140}
\begin{aligned}
M
&= – \lr{ \grad \wedge F} I \\
&= -\frac{1}{2} \lr{ \grad F + F \grad } I \\
&= -\frac{1}{2} \lr{ \grad F I – F I \grad } \\
&= – \grad \cdot \lr{ F I }.
\end{aligned}
\end{equation}

Dotting with \( \gamma^\mu \) gives

\begin{equation}\label{eqn:gaMagneticSourcesToTensorToVector:160}
\begin{aligned}
M^\mu
&= \gamma^\mu \cdot \lr{ \grad \cdot \lr{ – F I } } \\
&= \gamma^\mu \cdot \lr{ \gamma^\nu \partial_\nu \cdot \lr{ -\frac{1}{2}
\gamma^\alpha \wedge \gamma^\beta I F_{\alpha \beta} } } \\
&= -\inv{2}
\gpgradezero{
\gamma^\mu \cdot \lr{ \gamma^\nu \cdot \lr{ \gamma^\alpha \wedge \gamma^\beta I } }
}
\partial_\nu F_{\alpha \beta}.
\end{aligned}
\end{equation}

This scalar grade selection is a complete antisymmetrization of the indexes

\begin{equation}\label{eqn:gaMagneticSourcesToTensorToVector:180}
\begin{aligned}
\gpgradezero{
\gamma^\mu \cdot \lr{ \gamma^\nu \cdot \lr{ \gamma^\alpha \wedge \gamma^\beta I } }
}
&=
\gpgradezero{
\gamma^\mu \cdot \lr{ \gamma^\nu \cdot \lr{
\gamma^\alpha \gamma^\beta
\gamma_0 \gamma_1 \gamma_2 \gamma_3
} }
} \\
&=
\gpgradezero{
\gamma_0 \gamma_1 \gamma_2 \gamma_3
\gamma^\mu \gamma^\nu \gamma^\alpha \gamma^\beta
} \\
&=
\delta^{\mu \nu \alpha \beta}_{3 2 1 0} \\
&=
\epsilon^{\mu \nu \alpha \beta },
\end{aligned}
\end{equation}

so the magnetic source portion of Maxwell’s equation, in tensor form, is

\begin{equation}\label{eqn:gaMagneticSourcesToTensorToVector:200}
\boxed{
\inv{2} \epsilon^{\nu \alpha \beta \mu}
\partial_\nu F_{\alpha \beta}
=
M^\mu.
}
\end{equation}

Relating the tensor to the fields

The electromagnetic field has been identified with the electric and magnetic fields by

\begin{equation}\label{eqn:gaMagneticSourcesToTensorToVector:220}
F = \boldsymbol{\mathcal{E}} + c \mu_0 \boldsymbol{\mathcal{H}} I ,
\end{equation}

or in coordinates

\begin{equation}\label{eqn:gaMagneticSourcesToTensorToVector:240}
\inv{2} \gamma_\mu \wedge \gamma_\nu F^{\mu \nu}
= E^a \gamma_a \gamma_0 + c \mu_0 H^a \gamma_a \gamma_0 I.
\end{equation}

By forming the dot product sequence \( F^{\alpha \beta} = \gamma^\beta \cdot \lr{ \gamma^\alpha \cdot F } \), the electric and magnetic field components can be related to the tensor components. The electric field components follow by inspection and are

\begin{equation}\label{eqn:gaMagneticSourcesToTensorToVector:260}
E^b = \gamma^0 \cdot \lr{ \gamma^b \cdot F } = F^{b 0}.
\end{equation}

The magnetic field relation to the tensor components follow from

\begin{equation}\label{eqn:gaMagneticSourcesToTensorToVector:280}
\begin{aligned}
F^{r s}
&= F_{r s} \\
&= \gamma_s \cdot \lr{ \gamma_r \cdot \lr{ c \mu_0 H^a \gamma_a \gamma_0 I
} } \\
&=
c \mu_0 H^a \gpgradezero{ \gamma_s \gamma_r \gamma_a \gamma_0 I } \\
&=
c \mu_0 H^a \gpgradezero{ -\gamma^0 \gamma^1 \gamma^2 \gamma^3
\gamma_s \gamma_r \gamma_a \gamma_0 } \\
&=
c \mu_0 H^a \gpgradezero{ -\gamma^1 \gamma^2 \gamma^3
\gamma_s \gamma_r \gamma_a } \\
&=
– c \mu_0 H^a \delta^{[3 2 1]}_{s r a} \\
&=
c \mu_0 H^a \epsilon_{ s r a }.
\end{aligned}
\end{equation}

Expanding this for each pair of spacelike coordinates gives

\begin{equation}\label{eqn:gaMagneticSourcesToTensorToVector:320}
F^{1 2} = c \mu_0 H^3 \epsilon_{ 2 1 3 } = – c \mu_0 H^3
\end{equation}
\begin{equation}\label{eqn:gaMagneticSourcesToTensorToVector:340}
F^{2 3} = c \mu_0 H^1 \epsilon_{ 3 2 1 } = – c \mu_0 H^1
\end{equation}
\begin{equation}\label{eqn:gaMagneticSourcesToTensorToVector:360}
F^{3 1} = c \mu_0 H^2 \epsilon_{ 1 3 2 } = – c \mu_0 H^2,
\end{equation}

or

\begin{equation}\label{eqn:gaMagneticSourcesToTensorToVector:380}
\boxed{
\begin{aligned}
E^1 &= F^{1 0} \\
E^2 &= F^{2 0} \\
E^3 &= F^{3 0} \\
H^1 &= -\inv{c \mu_0} F^{2 3} \\
H^2 &= -\inv{c \mu_0} F^{3 1} \\
H^3 &= -\inv{c \mu_0} F^{1 2}.
\end{aligned}
}
\end{equation}

Recover the vector equations from the tensor equations

Starting with the non-dual Maxwell tensor equation, expanding the timelike index gives

\begin{equation}\label{eqn:gaMagneticSourcesToTensorToVector:480}
\begin{aligned}
\inv{c \epsilon_0} J^0
&= \inv{\epsilon_0} \rho \\
&=
\partial_\nu F^{\nu 0} \\
&=
\partial_1 F^{1 0}
+\partial_2 F^{2 0}
+\partial_3 F^{3 0}
\end{aligned}
\end{equation}

This is Gauss’s law

\begin{equation}\label{eqn:gaMagneticSourcesToTensorToVector:500}
\boxed{
\spacegrad \cdot \boldsymbol{\mathcal{E}}
=
\rho/\epsilon_0.
}
\end{equation}

For a spacelike index, any one is representive. Expanding index 1 gives

\begin{equation}\label{eqn:gaMagneticSourcesToTensorToVector:520}
\begin{aligned}
\inv{c \epsilon_0} J^1
&= \partial_\nu F^{\nu 1} \\
&= \inv{c} \partial_t F^{0 1}
+ \partial_2 F^{2 1}
+ \partial_3 F^{3 1} \\
&= -\inv{c} E^1
+ \partial_2 (c \mu_0 H^3)
+ \partial_3 (-c \mu_0 H^2) \\
&=
\lr{ -\inv{c} \PD{t}{\boldsymbol{\mathcal{E}}} + c \mu_0 \spacegrad \cross \boldsymbol{\mathcal{H}} } \cdot \Be_1.
\end{aligned}
\end{equation}

Extending this to the other indexes and multiplying through by \( \epsilon_0 c \) recovers the Ampere-Maxwell equation (assuming linear media)

\begin{equation}\label{eqn:gaMagneticSourcesToTensorToVector:540}
\boxed{
\spacegrad \cross \boldsymbol{\mathcal{H}} = \boldsymbol{\mathcal{J}} + \PD{t}{\boldsymbol{\mathcal{D}}}.
}
\end{equation}

The expansion of the 0th free (timelike) index of the dual Maxwell tensor equation is

\begin{equation}\label{eqn:gaMagneticSourcesToTensorToVector:400}
\begin{aligned}
M^0
&=
\inv{2} \epsilon^{\nu \alpha \beta 0}
\partial_\nu F_{\alpha \beta} \\
&=
-\inv{2} \epsilon^{0 \nu \alpha \beta}
\partial_\nu F_{\alpha \beta} \\
&=
-\inv{2}
\lr{
\partial_1 (F_{2 3} – F_{3 2})
+\partial_2 (F_{3 1} – F_{1 3})
+\partial_3 (F_{1 2} – F_{2 1})
} \\
&=
–
\lr{
\partial_1 F_{2 3}
+\partial_2 F_{3 1}
+\partial_3 F_{1 2}
} \\
&=
–
\lr{
\partial_1 (- c \mu_0 H^1 ) +
\partial_2 (- c \mu_0 H^2 ) +
\partial_3 (- c \mu_0 H^3 )
},
\end{aligned}
\end{equation}

but \( M^0 = c \rho_m \), giving us Gauss’s law for magnetism (with magnetic charge density included)

\begin{equation}\label{eqn:gaMagneticSourcesToTensorToVector:420}
\boxed{
\spacegrad \cdot \boldsymbol{\mathcal{H}} = \rho_m/\mu_0.
}
\end{equation}

For the spacelike indexes of the dual Maxwell equation, only one need be computed (say 1), and cyclic permutation will provide the rest. That is

\begin{equation}\label{eqn:gaMagneticSourcesToTensorToVector:440}
\begin{aligned}
M^1
&= \inv{2} \epsilon^{\nu \alpha \beta 1} \partial_\nu F_{\alpha \beta} \\
&=
\inv{2} \lr{ \partial_2 \lr{F_{3 0} – F_{0 3}} }
+\inv{2} \lr{ \partial_3 \lr{F_{0 2} – F_{0 2}} }
+\inv{2} \lr{ \partial_0 \lr{F_{2 3} – F_{3 2}} } \\
&=
– \partial_2 F^{3 0}
+ \partial_3 F^{2 0}
+ \partial_0 F_{2 3} \\
&=
-\partial_2 E^3 + \partial_3 E^2 + \inv{c} \PD{t}{} \lr{ – c \mu_0 H^1 } \\
&= – \lr{ \spacegrad \cross \boldsymbol{\mathcal{E}} + \mu_0 \PD{t}{\boldsymbol{\mathcal{H}}} } \cdot \Be_1.
\end{aligned}
\end{equation}

Extending this to the rest of the coordinates gives the Maxwell-Faraday equation (as extended to include magnetic current density sources)

\begin{equation}\label{eqn:gaMagneticSourcesToTensorToVector:460}
\boxed{
\spacegrad \cross \boldsymbol{\mathcal{E}} = -\boldsymbol{\mathcal{M}} – \mu_0 \PD{t}{\boldsymbol{\mathcal{H}}}.
}
\end{equation}

This takes things full circle, going from the vector differential Maxwell’s equations, to the Geometric Algebra form of Maxwell’s equation, to Maxwell’s equations in tensor form, and back to the vector form. Not only is the tensor form of Maxwell’s equations with magnetic sources now known, the translation from the tensor and vector formalism has also been verified, and miraculously no signs or factors of 2 were lost or gained in the process.

Energy momentum conservation with magnetic sources

February 20, 2015 ece1229 , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ,

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Maxwell’s equations with magnetic sources

The form of Maxwell’s equations to be used here are expressed in terms of \( \boldsymbol{\mathcal{E}} \) and \( \boldsymbol{\mathcal{H}} \), assume linear media, and do not assume a phasor representation

\begin{equation}\label{eqn:energyMomentumWithMagneticSources:120}
\spacegrad \cross \boldsymbol{\mathcal{E}} = – \boldsymbol{\mathcal{M}} – \mu_0 \PD{t}{\boldsymbol{\mathcal{H}}}
\end{equation}
\begin{equation}\label{eqn:energyMomentumWithMagneticSources:140}
\spacegrad \cross \boldsymbol{\mathcal{H}} = \boldsymbol{\mathcal{J}} + \epsilon_0 \PD{t}{\boldsymbol{\mathcal{E}}}
\end{equation}
\begin{equation}\label{eqn:energyMomentumWithMagneticSources:160}
\spacegrad \cdot \boldsymbol{\mathcal{E}} = \rho/\epsilon_0
\end{equation}
\begin{equation}\label{eqn:energyMomentumWithMagneticSources:180}
\spacegrad \cdot \boldsymbol{\mathcal{H}} = \rho_m/\mu_0.
\end{equation}

Energy momentum conservation

With magnetic sources the Poynting and energy conservation relationship has to be adjusted slightly. Let’s derive that result, starting with the divergence of the Poynting vector

\begin{equation}\label{eqn:energyMomentumWithMagneticSources:20}
\begin{aligned}
\spacegrad \cdot \lr{ \boldsymbol{\mathcal{E}} \cross \boldsymbol{\mathcal{H}} }
&=
\boldsymbol{\mathcal{H}} \cdot \lr{ \spacegrad \cross \boldsymbol{\mathcal{E}} }
-\boldsymbol{\mathcal{E}} \cdot \lr{ \spacegrad \cross \boldsymbol{\mathcal{H}} } \\
&=
-\boldsymbol{\mathcal{H}} \cdot \lr{ \mu_0 \partial_t \boldsymbol{\mathcal{H}} + \boldsymbol{\mathcal{M}} }
-\boldsymbol{\mathcal{E}} \cdot \lr{ \boldsymbol{\mathcal{J}} + \epsilon_0 \partial_t \boldsymbol{\mathcal{E}} } \\
&=
– \mu_0 \boldsymbol{\mathcal{H}} \cdot \partial_t \boldsymbol{\mathcal{H}} – \boldsymbol{\mathcal{H}} \cdot \boldsymbol{\mathcal{M}}
– \epsilon_0 \boldsymbol{\mathcal{E}} \cdot \partial_t \boldsymbol{\mathcal{E}} – \boldsymbol{\mathcal{E}} \cdot \boldsymbol{\mathcal{J}},
\end{aligned}
\end{equation}

or

\begin{equation}\label{eqn:energyMomentumWithMagneticSources:40}
\boxed{
\inv{2} \PD{t}{} \lr{ \epsilon_0 \boldsymbol{\mathcal{E}}^2 + \mu_0 \boldsymbol{\mathcal{H}}^2 }
+
\spacegrad \cdot \lr{ \boldsymbol{\mathcal{E}} \cross \boldsymbol{\mathcal{H}} }
=
– \boldsymbol{\mathcal{H}} \cdot \boldsymbol{\mathcal{M}}
– \boldsymbol{\mathcal{E}} \cdot \boldsymbol{\mathcal{J}}.
}
\end{equation}

The usual relationship is only modified by one additional term. Recall from electrodynamics [2] that \ref{eqn:energyMomentumWithMagneticSources:40} (when the magnetic current density \( \boldsymbol{\mathcal{M}} \) is omitted) is just one of four components of the energy momentum conservation equation

\begin{equation}\label{eqn:energyMomentumWithMagneticSources:80}
\partial_\mu T^{\mu \nu} = – \inv{c} F^{\nu \lambda} j_\lambda.
\end{equation}

Note that \ref{eqn:energyMomentumWithMagneticSources:80} was likely not in SI units. The next task is to generalize this classical relationship to incorporate the magnetic sources used in antenna theory. With an eye towards the relativistic nature of the energy momentum tensor, it is natural to assume that the remainder of the energy momentum tensor conservation relation can be found by taking the time derivatives of the Poynting vector.

\begin{equation}\label{eqn:energyMomentumWithMagneticSources:200}
\PD{t}{} \lr{ \boldsymbol{\mathcal{E}} \cross \boldsymbol{\mathcal{H}} }
=
\PD{t}{\boldsymbol{\mathcal{E}}} \cross \boldsymbol{\mathcal{H}}
+ \boldsymbol{\mathcal{E}} \cross \PD{t}{\boldsymbol{\mathcal{H}} }
=
\inv{\epsilon_0}
\lr{ \spacegrad \cross \boldsymbol{\mathcal{H}} – \boldsymbol{\mathcal{J}} } \cross \boldsymbol{\mathcal{H}}
+
\inv{\mu_0}
\boldsymbol{\mathcal{E}} \cross
\lr{
–
\spacegrad \cross \boldsymbol{\mathcal{E}} – \boldsymbol{\mathcal{M}} },
\end{equation}

or

\begin{equation}\label{eqn:energyMomentumWithMagneticSources:220}
\inv{c^2} \PD{t}{} \lr{ \boldsymbol{\mathcal{E}} \cross \boldsymbol{\mathcal{H}} }
+
\mu_0 \boldsymbol{\mathcal{J}} \cross \boldsymbol{\mathcal{H}}
+\epsilon_0
\boldsymbol{\mathcal{E}} \cross \boldsymbol{\mathcal{M}}
=
-\mu_0 \boldsymbol{\mathcal{H}} \cross \lr{ \spacegrad \cross \boldsymbol{\mathcal{H}} }
– \epsilon_0 \boldsymbol{\mathcal{E}} \cross \lr{ \spacegrad \cross \boldsymbol{\mathcal{E}} }.
\end{equation}

The \( \mu_0 \boldsymbol{\mathcal{J}} \cross \boldsymbol{\mathcal{H}} = \boldsymbol{\mathcal{J}} \cross \BB \) is a portion of the Lorentz force equation in its density form. To put \ref{eqn:energyMomentumWithMagneticSources:220} into the desired form, the remainder of the Lorentz force force equation \( \rho \boldsymbol{\mathcal{E}} = \epsilon_0 \boldsymbol{\mathcal{E}} \spacegrad \cdot \boldsymbol{\mathcal{E}} \) must be added to both sides. To extend the magnetic current term to its full dual (magnetic) Lorentz force structure, the quantity to add to both sides is \( \rho_m \boldsymbol{\mathcal{H}} = \mu_0 \boldsymbol{\mathcal{H}} \spacegrad \cdot \boldsymbol{\mathcal{H}} \). Performing these manipulations gives

\begin{equation}\label{eqn:energyMomentumWithMagneticSources:240}
\inv{c^2} \PD{t}{} \lr{ \boldsymbol{\mathcal{E}} \cross \boldsymbol{\mathcal{H}} }
+
\rho \BE + \mu_0 \boldsymbol{\mathcal{J}} \cross \boldsymbol{\mathcal{H}}
+ \rho_m \boldsymbol{\mathcal{H}}
+ \epsilon_0 \boldsymbol{\mathcal{E}} \cross \boldsymbol{\mathcal{M}}
=
\mu_0
\lr{
\boldsymbol{\mathcal{H}} \spacegrad \cdot \boldsymbol{\mathcal{H}}
-\boldsymbol{\mathcal{H}} \cross \lr{ \spacegrad \cross \boldsymbol{\mathcal{H}} }
}
+ \epsilon_0
\lr{
\boldsymbol{\mathcal{E}} \spacegrad \cdot \boldsymbol{\mathcal{E}}
–
\boldsymbol{\mathcal{E}} \cross \lr{ \spacegrad \cross \boldsymbol{\mathcal{E}} }
}.
\end{equation}

It seems slightly surprising the sign of the magnetic equivalent of the Lorentz force terms have an alternation of sign. This is, however, consistent with the duality transformations outlined in ([1] table 3.2)

\begin{equation}\label{eqn:energyMomentumWithMagneticSources:280}
\rho \rightarrow \rho_m
\end{equation}
\begin{equation}\label{eqn:energyMomentumWithMagneticSources:300}
\boldsymbol{\mathcal{J}} \rightarrow \boldsymbol{\mathcal{M}}
\end{equation}
\begin{equation}\label{eqn:energyMomentumWithMagneticSources:320}
\mu_0 \rightarrow \epsilon_0
\end{equation}
\begin{equation}\label{eqn:energyMomentumWithMagneticSources:340}
\boldsymbol{\mathcal{E}} \rightarrow \boldsymbol{\mathcal{H}}
\end{equation}
\begin{equation}\label{eqn:energyMomentumWithMagneticSources:360}
\boldsymbol{\mathcal{H}} \rightarrow -\boldsymbol{\mathcal{E}},
\end{equation}

for

\begin{equation}\label{eqn:energyMomentumWithMagneticSources:380}
\rho \BE + \mu_0 \boldsymbol{\mathcal{J}} \cross \boldsymbol{\mathcal{H}}
\rightarrow
\rho_m \BH + \epsilon_0 \boldsymbol{\mathcal{M}} \cross \lr{ -\boldsymbol{\mathcal{E}}}
=
\rho_m \BH + \epsilon_0 \boldsymbol{\mathcal{E}} \cross \boldsymbol{\mathcal{M}}.
\end{equation}

Comfortable that the LHS has the desired structure, the RHS can expressed as a divergence. Just expanding one of the differences of vector products on the RHS does not obviously show that this is possible, for example

\begin{equation}\label{eqn:energyMomentumWithMagneticSources:400}
\begin{aligned}
\Be_a \cdot
\lr{
\boldsymbol{\mathcal{E}} \spacegrad \cdot \boldsymbol{\mathcal{E}}
–
\boldsymbol{\mathcal{E}} \cross \lr{ \spacegrad \cross \boldsymbol{\mathcal{E}} }
}
&=
E_a \partial_b E_b
–
\epsilon_{a b c} E_b \epsilon_{c r s} \partial_r E_s \\
&=
E_a \partial_b E_b
–
\delta_{a b}^{[r s]} E_b \partial_r E_s \\
&=
E_a \partial_b E_b
–
E_b \lr{
\partial_a E_b
-\partial_b E_a
} \\
&=
E_a \partial_b E_b
– E_b \partial_a E_b
+ E_b \partial_b E_a.
\end{aligned}
\end{equation}

This happens to equal

\begin{equation}\label{eqn:energyMomentumWithMagneticSources:420}
\begin{aligned}
\spacegrad \cdot \lr{ \lr{E_a E_b – \inv{2} \delta_{a b} \boldsymbol{\mathcal{E}}^2 } \Be_b }
&=
\partial_b
\lr{E_a E_b – \inv{2} \delta_{a b} \boldsymbol{\mathcal{E}}^2 } \\
&=
E_b \partial_b E_a
+ E_a \partial_b E_b
–
\inv{2} \delta_{a b} 2 E_c \partial_b E_c \\
i&=
E_b \partial_b E_a
+ E_a \partial_b E_b
– E_b \partial_a E_b.
\end{aligned}
\end{equation}

This allows a final formulation of the remaining energy momentum conservation equation in its divergence form. Let

\begin{equation}\label{eqn:energyMomentumWithMagneticSources:440}
T^{a b} =
\epsilon_0 \lr{ E_a E_b – \inv{2} \delta_{a b} \boldsymbol{\mathcal{E}}^2 }
+ \mu_0 \lr{ H_a H_b – \inv{2} \delta_{a b} \boldsymbol{\mathcal{H}}^2 },
\end{equation}

so that the remaining energy momentum conservation equation, extended to both electric and magnetic sources, is

\begin{equation}\label{eqn:energyMomentumWithMagneticSources:460}
\boxed{
\inv{c^2} \PD{t}{} \lr{ \boldsymbol{\mathcal{E}} \cross \boldsymbol{\mathcal{H}} }
+
\rho \BE + \mu_0 \boldsymbol{\mathcal{J}} \cross \boldsymbol{\mathcal{H}}
+ \rho_m \boldsymbol{\mathcal{H}}
+ \epsilon_0 \boldsymbol{\mathcal{E}} \cross \boldsymbol{\mathcal{M}}
=
\Be_a \spacegrad \cdot \lr{ T^{a b} \Be_b }.
}
\end{equation}

On the LHS we have the rate of change of momentum density, the electric Lorentz force density terms, the dual (magnetic) Lorentz force density terms, and on the RHS the the momentum flux terms.

References

[1] Constantine A Balanis. Antenna theory: analysis and design. John Wiley \& Sons, 3rd edition, 2005.

[2] Peeter Joot. Relativistic Electrodynamics., chapter {Energy Momentum Tensor.} peeterjoot.com, 2011. URL https://peeterjoot.com/archives/math2011/phy450.pdf. [Online; accessed 18-February-2015].

Reciprocity theorem: background

February 19, 2015 ece1229 , , , , , , ,

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The class slides presented a derivation of the reciprocity theorem, a theorem that contained the integral of

\begin{equation}\label{eqn:reciprocityTheorem:360}
\int \lr{ \BE^{(a)} \cross \BH^{(b)} – \BE^{(b)} \cross \BH^{(a)} } \cdot d\BS = \cdots
\end{equation}

over a surface, where the RHS was a volume integral involving the fields and (electric and magnetic) current sources.
The idea was to consider two different source loading configurations of the same system, and to show that the fields and sources in the two configurations can be related.

To derive the result in question, a simple way to start is to look at the divergence of the difference of cross products above. This will require the phasor form of the two cross product Maxwell’s equations

\begin{equation}\label{eqn:reciprocityTheorem:100}
\spacegrad \cross \BE = – (\BM + j \omega \mu_0 \BH) % \BM^{(a)} + j \omega \mu_0 \BH^{(a)}
\end{equation}
\begin{equation}\label{eqn:reciprocityTheorem:120}
\spacegrad \cross \BH = \BJ + j \omega \epsilon_0 \BE, % \BJ^{(a)} + j \omega \epsilon_0 \BE^{(a)}
\end{equation}

so the divergence is

\begin{equation}\label{eqn:reciprocityTheorem:380}
\begin{aligned}
\spacegrad \cdot
\lr{ \BE^{(a)} \cross \BH^{(b)} – \BE^{(b)} \cross \BH^{(a)} }
&=
\BH^{(b)} \cdot \lr{ \spacegrad \cross \BE^{(a)} } -\BE^{(a)} \cdot \lr{ \spacegrad \cross \BH^{(b)} } \\
&-\BH^{(a)} \cdot \lr{ \spacegrad \cross \BE^{(b)} } +\BE^{(b)} \cdot \lr{ \spacegrad \cross \BH^{(a)} } \\
&=
-\BH^{(b)} \cdot \lr{ \BM^{(a)} + j \omega \mu_0 \BH^{(a)} } -\BE^{(a)} \cdot \lr{ \BJ^{(b)} + j \omega \epsilon_0 \BE^{(b)} } \\
&+\BH^{(a)} \cdot \lr{ \BM^{(b)} + j \omega \mu_0 \BH^{(b)} } +\BE^{(b)} \cdot \lr{ \BJ^{(a)} + j \omega \epsilon_0 \BE^{(a)} }.
\end{aligned}
\end{equation}

The non-source terms cancel, leaving

\begin{equation}\label{eqn:reciprocityTheorem:440}
\boxed{
\spacegrad \cdot
\lr{ \BE^{(a)} \cross \BH^{(b)} – \BE^{(b)} \cross \BH^{(a)} }
=
-\BH^{(b)} \cdot \BM^{(a)} -\BE^{(a)} \cdot \BJ^{(b)}
+\BH^{(a)} \cdot \BM^{(b)} +\BE^{(b)} \cdot \BJ^{(a)}
}
\end{equation}

Should we be suprised to have a relation of this form? Probably not, given that the energy momentum relationship between the fields and currents of a single source has the form

\begin{equation}\label{eqn:reciprocityTheorem:n}
\PD{t}{}\frac{\epsilon_0}{2} \left(\BE^2 + c^2 \BB^2\right) + \spacegrad \cdot \inv{\mu_0}(\BE \cross \BB) = -\BE \cdot \BJ.
\end{equation}

(this is without magnetic sources).

This suggests that the reciprocity theorem can be expressed more generally in terms of the energy-momentum tensor.

far field integral form

Employing the divergence theorem over a sphere the identity above takes the form

\begin{equation}\label{eqn:reciprocityTheorem:480}
\int_S
\lr{ \BE^{(a)} \cross \BH^{(b)} – \BE^{(b)} \cross \BH^{(a)} } \cdot \rcap dS
=
\int_V \lr{
-\BH^{(b)} \cdot \BM^{(a)} -\BE^{(a)} \cdot \BJ^{(b)}
+\BH^{(a)} \cdot \BM^{(b)} +\BE^{(b)} \cdot \BJ^{(a)}
}
dV
\end{equation}

In the far field, the cross products are strictly radial. That surface integral can be written as

\begin{equation}\label{eqn:reciprocityTheorem:500}
\begin{aligned}
\int_S
\lr{ \BE^{(a)} \cross \BH^{(b)} – \BE^{(b)} \cross \BH^{(a)} } \cdot \rcap dS
&=
\inv{\mu_0}
\int_S
\lr{ \BE^{(a)} \cross \lr{ \rcap \cross \BE^{(b)}} – \BE^{(b)} \cross \lr{ \rcap \cross \BE^{(a)}} } \cdot \rcap dS \\
&=
\inv{\mu_0}
\int_S
\lr{ \BE^{(a)} \cdot \BE^{(b)} – \BE^{(b)} \cdot \BE^{(a)}
}
dS \\
&= 0
\end{aligned}
\end{equation}

The above expansions used \ref{eqn:reciprocityTheorem:540} to expand the terms of the form

\begin{equation}\label{eqn:reciprocityTheorem:560}
\lr{ \BA \cross \lr{ \rcap \cross \BC } } \cdot \rcap
= \BA \cdot \BC -\lr{ \BA \cdot \rcap } \lr{ \BC \cdot \rcap },
\end{equation}

in which only the first dot product survives due to the transverse nature of the fields.

So in the far field we have a direct relation between the fields and sources of two source configurations of the same system of the form

\begin{equation}\label{eqn:reciprocityTheorem:580}
\boxed{
\int_V \lr{
\BH^{(a)} \cdot \BM^{(b)} +\BE^{(b)} \cdot \BJ^{(a)}
}
dV
=
\int_V \lr{
\BH^{(b)} \cdot \BM^{(a)} +\BE^{(a)} \cdot \BJ^{(b)}
}
dV
}
\end{equation}

Application to antenna

This is the underlying reason that we are able to pose the problem of what an antenna can recieve, in terms of what the antenna can transmit.

More on that to come.

Identities

Lemma: Divergence of a cross product.

\begin{equation}\label{thm:polarizationReview:400}
\spacegrad \cdot \lr{ \BA \cross \BB } =
\BB \lr{\spacegrad \cross \BA}
-\BA \lr{\spacegrad \cross \BB}.
\end{equation}

Proof.

\begin{equation}\label{eqn:reciprocityTheorem:420}
\begin{aligned}
\spacegrad \cdot \lr{ \BA \cross \BB }
&=
\partial_a \epsilon_{a b c} A_b B_c \\
&=
\epsilon_{a b c} (\partial_a A_b )B_c
–
\epsilon_{b a c} A_b (\partial_a B_c) \\
&=
\BB \cdot (\spacegrad \cross \BA)
-\BB \cdot (\spacegrad \cross \BA).
\end{aligned}
\end{equation}

Lemma: Triple cross product dotted
\begin{equation}\label{thm:polarizationReview:520}
\begin{aligned}
\lr{ \BA \cross \lr{ \BB \cross \BC } } \cdot \BD
=
\lr{ \BA \cdot \BC } \lr{ \BB \cdot \BD }
-\lr{ \BA \cdot \BB } \lr{ \BC \cdot \BD }
\end{aligned}
\end{equation}

Proof.

\begin{equation}\label{eqn:reciprocityTheorem:540}
\begin{aligned}
\lr{ \BA \cross \lr{ \BB \cross \BC } } \cdot \BD
&=
\epsilon_{a b c} A_b \epsilon_{r s c } B_r C_s D_a \\
&=
\delta_{[a b]}^{r s}
A_b B_r C_s D_a \\
&=
A_s B_r C_s D_r
-A_r B_r C_s D_s \\
&=
\lr{ \BA \cdot \BC } \lr{ \BB \cdot \BD }
-\lr{ \BA \cdot \BB } \lr{ \BC \cdot \BD }.
\end{aligned}
\end{equation}

Notes for ece1229 antenna theory

February 4, 2015 ece1229 , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ,

I’ve now posted a first set of notes for the antenna theory course that I am taking this term at UofT.

Unlike most of the other classes I have taken, I am not attempting to take comprehensive notes for this class. The class is taught on slides that match the textbook so closely, there is little value to me taking notes that just replicate the text. Instead, I am annotating my copy of textbook with little details instead. My usual notes collection for the class will contain musings of details that were unclear, or in some cases, details that were provided in class, but are not in the text (and too long to pencil into my book.)

The notes linked above include:

  • Reading notes for chapter 2 (Fundamental Parameters of Antennas) and chapter 3 (Radiation Integrals and Auxiliary Potential Functions) of the class text.
  • Geometric Algebra musings.  How to do formulate Maxwell’s equations when magnetic sources are also included (those modeling magnetic dipoles).
  • Some problems for chapter 2 content.

Phasor form of (extended) Maxwell’s equations in Geometric Algebra

February 3, 2015 ece1229 , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ,

[Click here for a PDF of this post with nicer formatting]

Separate examinations of the phasor form of Maxwell’s equation (with electric charges and current densities), and the Dual Maxwell’s equation (i.e. allowing magnetic charges and currents) were just performed. Here the structure of these equations with both electric and magnetic charges and currents will be examined.

The vector curl and divergence form of Maxwell’s equations are

\begin{equation}\label{eqn:phasorMaxwellsWithElectricAndMagneticCharges:20}
\spacegrad \cross \boldsymbol{\mathcal{E}} = -\PD{t}{\boldsymbol{\mathcal{B}}} -\BM
\end{equation}
\begin{equation}\label{eqn:phasorMaxwellsWithElectricAndMagneticCharges:40}
\spacegrad \cross \boldsymbol{\mathcal{H}} = \boldsymbol{\mathcal{J}} + \PD{t}{\boldsymbol{\mathcal{D}}}
\end{equation}
\begin{equation}\label{eqn:phasorMaxwellsWithElectricAndMagneticCharges:60}
\spacegrad \cdot \boldsymbol{\mathcal{D}} = \rho
\end{equation}
\begin{equation}\label{eqn:phasorMaxwellsWithElectricAndMagneticCharges:80}
\spacegrad \cdot \boldsymbol{\mathcal{B}} = \rho_m.
\end{equation}

In phasor form these are

\begin{equation}\label{eqn:phasorMaxwellsWithElectricAndMagneticCharges:100}
\spacegrad \cross \BE = – j k c \BB -\BM
\end{equation}
\begin{equation}\label{eqn:phasorMaxwellsWithElectricAndMagneticCharges:120}
\spacegrad \cross \BH = \BJ + j k c \BD
\end{equation}
\begin{equation}\label{eqn:phasorMaxwellsWithElectricAndMagneticCharges:140}
\spacegrad \cdot \BD = \rho
\end{equation}
\begin{equation}\label{eqn:phasorMaxwellsWithElectricAndMagneticCharges:160}
\spacegrad \cdot \BB = \rho_m.
\end{equation}

Switching to \( \BE = \BD/\epsilon_0, \BB = \mu_0 \BH\) fields (even though these aren’t the primary fields in engineering), gives

\begin{equation}\label{eqn:phasorMaxwellsWithElectricAndMagneticCharges:180}
\spacegrad \cross \BE = – j k (c \BB) -\BM
\end{equation}
\begin{equation}\label{eqn:phasorMaxwellsWithElectricAndMagneticCharges:200}
\spacegrad \cross (c \BB) = \frac{\BJ}{\epsilon_0 c} + j k \BE
\end{equation}
\begin{equation}\label{eqn:phasorMaxwellsWithElectricAndMagneticCharges:220}
\spacegrad \cdot \BE = \rho/\epsilon_0
\end{equation}
\begin{equation}\label{eqn:phasorMaxwellsWithElectricAndMagneticCharges:240}
\spacegrad \cdot (c \BB) = c \rho_m.
\end{equation}

Finally, using

\begin{equation}\label{eqn:phasorMaxwellsWithElectricAndMagneticCharges:260}
\Bf \Bg = \Bf \cdot \Bg + I \Bf \cross \Bg,
\end{equation}

the divergence and curl contributions of each of the fields can be grouped

\begin{equation}\label{eqn:phasorMaxwellsWithElectricAndMagneticCharges:300}
\spacegrad \BE = \rho/\epsilon_0 – \lr{ j k (c \BB) +\BM} I
\end{equation}
\begin{equation}\label{eqn:phasorMaxwellsWithElectricAndMagneticCharges:320}
\spacegrad (c \BB I) = c \rho_m I – \lr{ \frac{\BJ}{\epsilon_0 c} + j k \BE },
\end{equation}

or

\begin{equation}\label{eqn:phasorMaxwellsWithElectricAndMagneticCharges:340}
\spacegrad \lr{ \BE + c \BB I }
=
\rho/\epsilon_0 – \lr{ j k (c \BB) +\BM} I
+
c \rho_m I – \lr{ \frac{\BJ}{\epsilon_0 c} + j k \BE }.
\end{equation}

Regrouping gives Maxwell’s equations including both electric and magnetic sources
\begin{equation}\label{eqn:phasorMaxwellsWithElectricAndMagneticCharges:360}
\boxed{
\lr{ \spacegrad + j k } \lr{ \BE + c \BB I }
=
\inv{\epsilon_0 c} \lr{ c \rho – \BJ }
+ \lr{ c \rho_m – \BM } I.
}
\end{equation}

It was observed that these can be put into a tidy four vector form by premultiplying by \( \gamma_0 \), where

\begin{equation}\label{eqn:phasorMaxwellsWithElectricAndMagneticCharges:400}
J = \gamma_\mu J^\mu = \lr{ c \rho, \BJ }
\end{equation}
\begin{equation}\label{eqn:phasorMaxwellsWithElectricAndMagneticCharges:420}
M = \gamma_\mu M^\mu = \lr{ c \rho_m, \BM }
\end{equation}
\begin{equation}\label{eqn:phasorMaxwellsWithElectricAndMagneticCharges:440}
\grad = \gamma_0 \lr{ \spacegrad + j k } = \gamma^k \partial_k + j k \gamma_0,
\end{equation}

That gives

\begin{equation}\label{eqn:phasorMaxwellsWithElectricAndMagneticCharges:460}
\boxed{
\grad \lr{ \BE + c \BB I } = \frac{J}{\epsilon_0 c} + M I.
}
\end{equation}

When there were only electric sources, it was observed that potential solutions were of the form \( \BE + c \BB I \propto \grad \wedge A \), whereas when there was only magnetic sources it was observed that potential solutions were of the form \( \BE + c \BB I \propto (\grad \wedge F) I \). It seems reasonable to attempt a trial solution that contains both such contributions, say

\begin{equation}\label{eqn:phasorMaxwellsWithElectricAndMagneticCharges:480}
\BE + c \BB I = \grad \wedge A_{\textrm{e}} + \grad \wedge A_{\textrm{m}} I.
\end{equation}

Without any loss of generality Lorentz gauge conditions can be imposed on the four-vector fields \( A_{\textrm{e}}, A_{\textrm{m}} \). Those conditions are

\begin{equation}\label{eqn:phasorMaxwellsWithElectricAndMagneticCharges:500}
\grad \cdot A_{\textrm{e}} = \grad \cdot A_{\textrm{m}} = 0.
\end{equation}

Since \( \grad X = \grad \cdot X + \grad \wedge X \), for any four vector \( X \), the trial solution \ref{eqn:phasorMaxwellsWithElectricAndMagneticCharges:480} is reduced to

\begin{equation}\label{eqn:phasorMaxwellsWithElectricAndMagneticCharges:520}
\BE + c \BB I = \grad A_{\textrm{e}} + \grad A_{\textrm{m}} I.
\end{equation}

Maxwell’s equation is now

\begin{equation}\label{eqn:phasorMaxwellsWithElectricAndMagneticCharges:540}
\begin{aligned}
\frac{J}{\epsilon_0 c} + M I
&=
\grad^2 \lr{ A_{\textrm{e}} + A_{\textrm{m}} I } \\
&=
\gamma_0 \lr{ \spacegrad + j k }
\gamma_0 \lr{ \spacegrad + j k }
\lr{ A_{\textrm{e}} + A_{\textrm{m}} I } \\
&=
\lr{ -\spacegrad + j k }
\lr{ \spacegrad + j k }
\lr{ A_{\textrm{e}} + A_{\textrm{m}} I } \\
&=
-\lr{ \spacegrad^2 + k^2 }
\lr{ A_{\textrm{e}} + A_{\textrm{m}} I }.
\end{aligned}
\end{equation}

Notice how tidily this separates into vector and trivector components. Those are

\begin{equation}\label{eqn:phasorMaxwellsWithElectricAndMagneticCharges:580}
-\lr{ \spacegrad^2 + k^2 } A_{\textrm{e}} = \frac{J}{\epsilon_0 c}
\end{equation}
\begin{equation}\label{eqn:phasorMaxwellsWithElectricAndMagneticCharges:600}
-\lr{ \spacegrad^2 + k^2 } A_{\textrm{m}} = M.
\end{equation}

The result is a single Helmholtz equation for each of the electric and magnetic four-potentials, and both can be solved completely independently. This was claimed in class, but now the underlying reason is clear.

Because a single frequency phasor relationship was implied the scalar components of each of these four potentials is determined by the Lorentz gauge condition. For example

\begin{equation}\label{eqn:phasorMaxwellsWithElectricAndMagneticCharges:620}
\begin{aligned}
0
&=
\spacegrad \cdot \lr{ A_{\textrm{e}} e^{j k c t} } \\
&=
\lr{ \gamma^0 \inv{c} \PD{t}{} + \gamma^k \PD{x^k}{} } \cdot
\lr{
\gamma_0 A_{\textrm{e}}^0 e^{j k c t}
+ \gamma_m A_{\textrm{e}}^m e^{j k c t}
} \\
&=
\lr{ \gamma^0 j k + \gamma^r \PD{x^r}{} } \cdot
\lr{
\gamma_0 A_{\textrm{e}}^0
+ \gamma_s A_{\textrm{e}}^s
}
e^{j k c t} \\
&=
\lr{
j k
A_{\textrm{e}}^0
+
\spacegrad \cdot
\BA_{\textrm{e}}
}
e^{j k c t},
\end{aligned}
\end{equation}

so

\begin{equation}\label{eqn:phasorMaxwellsWithElectricAndMagneticCharges:640}
A_{\textrm{e}}^0
=\frac{ j} { k }
\spacegrad \cdot
\BA_{\textrm{e}}.
\end{equation}

The same sort of relationship will apply to the magnetic potential too. This means that the Helmholtz equations can be solved in the three vector space as

\begin{equation}\label{eqn:phasorMaxwellsWithElectricAndMagneticCharges:680}
\lr{ \spacegrad^2 + k^2 } \BA_{\textrm{e}} = -\frac{\BJ}{\epsilon_0 c}
\end{equation}
\begin{equation}\label{eqn:phasorMaxwellsWithElectricAndMagneticCharges:700}
\lr{ \spacegrad^2 + k^2 } \BA_{\textrm{m}} = -\BM.
\end{equation}