duality

Maxwell’s equations in STA and Tensor forms.

June 11, 2022 math and physics play , , , , , , ,

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This is part II of a series, continuing from our expansion of \( F^2 \) previously.

We are going to use the coordinate expansion of the Lagrangian, so we need the tensor form of Maxwell’s equation for comparison.

Maxwell’s equations, with electric and fictional magnetic sources (useful for antenna theory and other engineering applications), are
\begin{equation}\label{eqn:fsquared:220}
\begin{aligned}
\spacegrad \cdot \BE &= \frac{\rho}{\epsilon} \\
\spacegrad \cross \BE &= – \BM – \mu \PD{t}{\BH} \\
\spacegrad \cdot \BH &= \frac{\rho_\txtm}{\mu} \\
\spacegrad \cross \BH &= \BJ + \epsilon \PD{t}{\BE}.
\end{aligned}
\end{equation}
We can assemble these into a single geometric algebra equation,
\begin{equation}\label{eqn:fsquared:240}
\lr{ \spacegrad + \inv{c} \PD{t}{} } F = \eta \lr{ c \rho – \BJ } + I \lr{ c \rho_m – \BM },
\end{equation}
where \( F = \BE + \eta I \BH = \BE + I c \BB \).

We can put this into STA form by multiplying through by \( \gamma_0 \), making the identification \( \Be_k = \gamma_k \gamma_0 \). For the space time derivatives, we have
\begin{equation}\label{eqn:fsquared:260}
\begin{aligned}
\gamma_0 \lr{ \spacegrad + \inv{c} \PD{t}{} }
&=
\gamma_0 \lr{ \gamma_k \gamma_0 \PD{x_k}{} + \PD{x_0}{} } \\
&=
-\gamma_k \partial_k + \gamma_0 \partial_0 \\
&=
\gamma^k \partial_k + \gamma^0 \partial_0 \\
&=
\gamma^\mu \partial_\mu \\
&\equiv \grad
.
\end{aligned}
\end{equation}
For our 0,2 multivectors on the right hand side, we find, for example
\begin{equation}\label{eqn:fsquared:280}
\begin{aligned}
\gamma_0 \eta \lr{ c \rho – \BJ }
&=
\gamma_0 \eta c \rho – \gamma_0 \gamma_k \gamma_0 \eta (\BJ \cdot \Be_k) \\
&=
\gamma_0 \eta c \rho + \gamma_k \eta (\BJ \cdot \Be_k) \\
&=
\gamma_0 \frac{\rho}{\epsilon} + \gamma_k \eta (\BJ \cdot \Be_k).
\end{aligned}
\end{equation}
So, if we make the identifications
\begin{equation}\label{eqn:fsquared:300}
\begin{aligned}
J^0 &= \frac{\rho}{\epsilon} \\
J^k &= \eta \lr{ \BJ \cdot \Be_k } \\
M^0 &= c \rho_m \\
M^k &= \BM \cdot \Be_k,
\end{aligned}
\end{equation}
and \( J = J^\mu \gamma_\mu, M = M^\mu \gamma_\mu \), and \( \grad = \gamma^\mu \partial_\mu \) we find the STA form of Maxwell’s equation, including magnetic sources
\begin{equation}\label{eqn:fsquared:320}
\grad F = J – I M.
\end{equation}

The electromagnetic field, in it’s STA representation is a bivector, which we can write without reference to observer specific electric and magnetic fields, as
\begin{equation}\label{eqn:fsquared:340}
F = \inv{2} {\gamma_\mu \wedge \gamma_\nu} F^{\mu\nu},
\end{equation}
where \( F^{\mu\nu} \) is an arbitrary antisymmetric 2nd rank tensor. Maxwell’s equation has a vector and trivector component, which may be split out explicitly using grade selection, to find
\begin{equation}\label{eqn:fsquared:360}
\begin{aligned}
\grad \cdot F &= J \\
\grad \wedge F &= -I M.
\end{aligned}
\end{equation}

Dotting the vector equation with \( \gamma^\mu \), we have
\begin{equation}\label{eqn:fsquared:380}
\begin{aligned}
J^\mu
&=
\inv{2} \gamma^\mu \cdot \lr{ \gamma^\alpha \cdot \lr{ \gamma_{\sigma} \wedge \gamma_{\pi} } \partial_\alpha F^{\sigma \pi} } \\
&=
\inv{2} \lr{
{\delta^\mu}_\pi {\delta^\alpha}_\sigma
–
{\delta^\mu}_\sigma {\delta^\alpha}_\pi
}
\partial_\alpha F^{\sigma \pi} \\
&=
\inv{2}
\lr{
\partial_\sigma F^{\sigma \mu}
–
\partial_\pi F^{\mu \pi}
}
\\
&=
\partial_\sigma F^{\sigma \mu}.
\end{aligned}
\end{equation}

We can find the tensor form of the trivector equation by wedging it with \( \gamma^\mu \). On the left we have
\begin{equation}\label{eqn:fsquared:400}
\begin{aligned}
\gamma^\mu \wedge \lr{ \grad \wedge F }
&=
\inv{2} \gamma^\mu \wedge \gamma^\nu \wedge \gamma^\alpha \wedge \gamma^\beta \partial_\nu F_{\alpha\beta} \\
&=
\inv{2} I \epsilon^{\mu\nu\alpha\beta} \partial_\nu F_{\alpha\beta}.
\end{aligned}
\end{equation}
On the right, we have
\begin{equation}\label{eqn:fsquared:420}
\begin{aligned}
\gamma^\mu \wedge \lr{ -I M }
&=
-\gpgrade{ \gamma^\mu I M }{4} \\
&=
\gpgrade{ I \gamma^\mu M }{4} \\
&=
I \lr{ \gamma^\mu \cdot M } \\
&=
I M^\mu,
\end{aligned}
\end{equation}
so we have
\begin{equation}\label{eqn:fsquared:440}
\begin{aligned}
\partial_\nu \lr{
\inv{2}
\epsilon^{\mu\nu\alpha\beta}
F_{\alpha\beta}
}
=
M^\mu.
\end{aligned}
\end{equation}
Note that, should we want to, we can define a dual tensor \( G^{\mu\nu} = -(1/2) \epsilon^{\mu\nu\alpha\beta} F_{\alpha\beta} \), so that the electric and magnetic components of Maxwell’s equation have the same structure
\begin{equation}\label{eqn:fsquared:460}
\partial_\nu F^{\nu\mu} = J^{\mu}, \quad \partial_\nu G^{\nu\mu} = M^{\mu}.
\end{equation}

Now that we have the tensor form of Maxwell’s equation, we can proceed to try to find the Lagrangian. We will assume that the Lagrangian density for Maxwell’s equation has the multivector structure
\begin{equation}\label{eqn:fsquared:n}
\LL = \gpgrade{F^2}{0,4} + a \lr{ A \cdot J } + b I \lr{ A \cdot M},
\end{equation}
where \( F = \grad \wedge A \). My hunch, since the multivector current has the form \( J – I M \), is that we don’t actually need the grade two component of \( F^2 \), despite having spent the time computing it, thinking that it might be required.

Next time, we’ll remind ourselves what the field Euler-Lagrange equations look like, and evaluate them to see if we can find the constants \(a, b\).

Application of Stokes Theorem to the Maxwell equation

September 3, 2016 math and physics play , , , , , , , , , , , ,

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The relativistic form of Maxwell’s equation in Geometric Algebra is

\begin{equation}\label{eqn:maxwellStokes:20}
\grad F = \inv{c \epsilon_0} J,
\end{equation}

where \( \grad = \gamma^\mu \partial_\mu \) is the spacetime gradient, and \( J = (c\rho, \BJ) = J^\mu \gamma_\mu \) is the four (vector) current density. The pseudoscalar for the space is denoted \( I = \gamma_0 \gamma_1 \gamma_2 \gamma_3 \), where the basis elements satisfy \( \gamma_0^2 = 1 = -\gamma_k^2 \), and a dual basis satisfies \( \gamma_\mu \cdot \gamma^\nu = \delta_\mu^\nu \). The electromagnetic field \( F \) is a composite multivector \( F = \BE + I c \BB \). This is actually a bivector because spatial vectors have a bivector representation in the space time algebra of the form \( \BE = E^k \gamma_k \gamma_0 \).

A dual representation, with \( F = I G \) is also possible

\begin{equation}\label{eqn:maxwellStokes:60}
\grad G = \frac{I}{c \epsilon_0} J.
\end{equation}

Either form of Maxwell’s equation can be split into grade one and three components. The standard (non-dual) form is

\begin{equation}\label{eqn:maxwellStokes:40}
\begin{aligned}
\grad \cdot F &= \inv{c \epsilon_0} J \\
\grad \wedge F &= 0,
\end{aligned}
\end{equation}

and the dual form is

\begin{equation}\label{eqn:maxwellStokes:41}
\begin{aligned}
\grad \cdot G &= 0 \\
\grad \wedge G &= \frac{I}{c \epsilon_0} J.
\end{aligned}
\end{equation}

In both cases a potential representation \( F = \grad \wedge A \), where \( A \) is a four vector potential can be used to kill off the non-current equation. Such a potential representation reduces Maxwell’s equation to

\begin{equation}\label{eqn:maxwellStokes:80}
\grad \cdot F = \inv{c \epsilon_0} J,
\end{equation}

or
\begin{equation}\label{eqn:maxwellStokes:100}
\grad \wedge G = \frac{I}{c \epsilon_0} J.
\end{equation}

In both cases, these reduce to
\begin{equation}\label{eqn:maxwellStokes:120}
\grad^2 A – \grad \lr{ \grad \cdot A } = \inv{c \epsilon_0} J.
\end{equation}

This can clearly be further simplified by using the Lorentz gauge, where \( \grad \cdot A = 0 \). However, the aim for now is to try applying Stokes theorem to Maxwell’s equation. The dual form \ref{eqn:maxwellStokes:100} has the curl structure required for the application of Stokes. Suppose that we evaluate this curl over the three parameter volume element \( d^3 x = i\, dx^0 dx^1 dx^2 \), where \( i = \gamma_0 \gamma_1 \gamma_2 \) is the unit pseudoscalar for the spacetime volume element.

\begin{equation}\label{eqn:maxwellStokes:101}
\begin{aligned}
\int_V d^3 x \cdot \lr{ \grad \wedge G }
&=
\int_V d^3 x \cdot \lr{ \gamma^\mu \wedge \partial_\mu G } \\
&=
\int_V \lr{ d^3 x \cdot \gamma^\mu } \cdot \partial_\mu G \\
&=
\sum_{\mu \ne 3} \int_V \lr{ d^3 x \cdot \gamma^\mu } \cdot \partial_\mu G.
\end{aligned}
\end{equation}

This uses the distibution identity \( A_s \cdot (a \wedge A_r) = (A_s \cdot a) \cdot A_r \) which holds for blades \( A_s, A_r \) provided \( s > r > 0 \). Observe that only the component of the gradient that lies in the tangent space of the three volume manifold contributes to the integral, allowing the gradient to be used in the Stokes integral instead of the vector derivative (see: [1]).
Defining the the surface area element

\begin{equation}\label{eqn:maxwellStokes:140}
\begin{aligned}
d^2 x
&= \sum_{\mu \ne 3} i \cdot \gamma^\mu \inv{dx^\mu} d^3 x \\
&= \gamma_1 \gamma_2 dx dy
+ c \gamma_2 \gamma_0 dt dy
+ c \gamma_0 \gamma_1 dt dx,
\end{aligned}
\end{equation}

Stokes theorem for this volume element is now completely specified

\begin{equation}\label{eqn:maxwellStokes:200}
\int_V d^3 x \cdot \lr{ \grad \wedge G }
=
\int_{\partial V} d^2 \cdot G.
\end{equation}

Application to the dual Maxwell equation gives

\begin{equation}\label{eqn:maxwellStokes:160}
\int_{\partial V} d^2 x \cdot G
= \inv{c \epsilon_0} \int_V d^3 x \cdot (I J).
\end{equation}

After some manipulation, this can be restated in the non-dual form

\begin{equation}\label{eqn:maxwellStokes:180}
\boxed{
\int_{\partial V} \inv{I} d^2 x \wedge F
= \frac{1}{c \epsilon_0 I} \int_V d^3 x \wedge J.
}
\end{equation}

It can be demonstrated that using this with each of the standard basis spacetime 3-volume elements recovers Gauss’s law and the Ampere-Maxwell equation. So, what happened to Faraday’s law and Gauss’s law for magnetism? With application of Stokes to the curl equation from \ref{eqn:maxwellStokes:40}, those equations take the form

\begin{equation}\label{eqn:maxwellStokes:240}
\boxed{
\int_{\partial V} d^2 x \cdot F = 0.
}
\end{equation}

Problem 1:

Demonstrate that the Ampere-Maxwell equation and Gauss’s law can be recovered from the trivector (curl) equation \ref{eqn:maxwellStokes:100}.

Answer

The curl equation is a trivector on each side, so dotting it with each of the four possible trivectors \( \gamma_0 \gamma_1 \gamma_2, \gamma_0 \gamma_2 \gamma_3, \gamma_0 \gamma_1 \gamma_3, \gamma_1 \gamma_2 \gamma_3 \) will give four different scalar equations. For example, dotting with \( \gamma_0 \gamma_1 \gamma_2 \), we have for the curl side

\begin{equation}\label{eqn:maxwellStokes:460}
\begin{aligned}
\lr{ \gamma_0 \gamma_1 \gamma_2 } \cdot \lr{ \gamma^\mu \wedge \partial_\mu G }
&=
\lr{ \lr{ \gamma_0 \gamma_1 \gamma_2 } \cdot \gamma^\mu } \cdot \partial_\mu G \\
&=
(\gamma_0 \gamma_1) \cdot \partial_2 G
+(\gamma_2 \gamma_0) \cdot \partial_1 G
+(\gamma_1 \gamma_2) \cdot \partial_0 G,
\end{aligned}
\end{equation}

and for the current side, we have

\begin{equation}\label{eqn:maxwellStokes:480}
\begin{aligned}
\inv{\epsilon_0 c} \lr{ \gamma_0 \gamma_1 \gamma_2 } \cdot \lr{ I J }
&=
\inv{\epsilon_0 c} \gpgradezero{ \gamma_0 \gamma_1 \gamma_2 (\gamma_0 \gamma_1 \gamma_2 \gamma_3) J } \\
&=
\inv{\epsilon_0 c} \gpgradezero{ -\gamma_3 J } \\
&=
\inv{\epsilon_0 c} \gamma^3 \cdot J \\
&=
\inv{\epsilon_0 c} J^3,
\end{aligned}
\end{equation}

so we have
\begin{equation}\label{eqn:maxwellStokes:500}
(\gamma_0 \gamma_1) \cdot \partial_2 G
+(\gamma_2 \gamma_0) \cdot \partial_1 G
+(\gamma_1 \gamma_2) \cdot \partial_0 G
=
\inv{\epsilon_0 c} J^3.
\end{equation}

Similarily, dotting with \( \gamma_{013}, \gamma_{023}, and \gamma_{123} \) respectively yields
\begin{equation}\label{eqn:maxwellStokes:620}
\begin{aligned}
\gamma_{01} \cdot \partial_3 G + \gamma_{30} \partial_1 G + \gamma_{13} \partial_0 G &= – \inv{\epsilon_0 c} J^2 \\
\gamma_{02} \cdot \partial_3 G + \gamma_{30} \partial_2 G + \gamma_{23} \partial_0 G &= \inv{\epsilon_0 c} J^1 \\
\gamma_{12} \cdot \partial_3 G + \gamma_{31} \partial_2 G + \gamma_{23} \partial_1 G &= -\inv{\epsilon_0} \rho.
\end{aligned}
\end{equation}

Expanding the dual electromagnetic field, first in terms of the spatial vectors, and then in the space time basis, we have
\begin{equation}\label{eqn:maxwellStokes:520}
\begin{aligned}
G
&= -I F \\
&= -I \lr{ \BE + I c \BB } \\
&= -I \BE + c \BB. \\
&= -I \BE + c B^k \gamma_k \gamma_0 \\
&= \inv{2} \epsilon^{r s t} \gamma_r \gamma_s E^t + c B^k \gamma_k \gamma_0.
\end{aligned}
\end{equation}

So, dotting with a spatial vector will pick up a component of \( \BB \), we have
\begin{equation}\label{eqn:maxwellStokes:540}
\begin{aligned}
\lr{ \gamma_m \wedge \gamma_0 } \cdot \partial_\mu G
&=
\lr{ \gamma_m \wedge \gamma_0 } \cdot \partial_\mu \lr{
\inv{2} \epsilon^{r s t} \gamma_r \gamma_s E^t + c B^k \gamma_k \gamma_0
} \\
&=
c \partial_\mu B^k
\gpgradezero{
\gamma_m \gamma_0 \gamma_k \gamma_0
} \\
&=
c \partial_\mu B^k
\gpgradezero{
\gamma_m \gamma_0 \gamma_0 \gamma^k
} \\
&=
c \partial_\mu B^k
\delta_m^k \\
&=
c \partial_\mu B^m.
\end{aligned}
\end{equation}

Written out explicitly the electric field contributions to \( G \) are

\begin{equation}\label{eqn:maxwellStokes:560}
\begin{aligned}
-I \BE
&=
-\gamma_{0123k0} E^k \\
&=
-\gamma_{123k} E^k \\
&=
\left\{
\begin{array}{l l}
\gamma_{12} E^3 & \quad \mbox{\( k = 3 \)} \\
\gamma_{31} E^2 & \quad \mbox{\( k = 2 \)} \\
\gamma_{23} E^1 & \quad \mbox{\( k = 1 \)} \\
\end{array}
\right.,
\end{aligned}
\end{equation}

so
\begin{equation}\label{eqn:maxwellStokes:580}
\begin{aligned}
\gamma_{23} \cdot G &= -E^1 \\
\gamma_{31} \cdot G &= -E^2 \\
\gamma_{12} \cdot G &= -E^3.
\end{aligned}
\end{equation}

We now have the pieces required to expand \ref{eqn:maxwellStokes:500} and \ref{eqn:maxwellStokes:620}, which are respectively

\begin{equation}\label{eqn:maxwellStokes:501}
\begin{aligned}
– c \partial_2 B^1 + c \partial_1 B^2 – \partial_0 E^3 &= \inv{\epsilon_0 c} J^3 \\
– c \partial_3 B^1 + c \partial_1 B^3 + \partial_0 E^2 &= -\inv{\epsilon_0 c} J^2 \\
– c \partial_3 B^2 + c \partial_2 B^3 – \partial_0 E^1 &= \inv{\epsilon_0 c} J^1 \\
– \partial_3 E^3 – \partial_2 E^2 – \partial_1 E^1 &= – \inv{\epsilon_0} \rho
\end{aligned}
\end{equation}

which are the components of the Ampere-Maxwell equation, and Gauss’s law

\begin{equation}\label{eqn:maxwellStokes:600}
\begin{aligned}
\inv{\mu_0} \spacegrad \cross \BB – \epsilon_0 \PD{t}{\BE} &= \BJ \\
\spacegrad \cdot \BE &= \frac{\rho}{\epsilon_0}.
\end{aligned}
\end{equation}

Problem 2:

Prove \ref{eqn:maxwellStokes:180}.

Answer

The proof just requires the expansion of the dot products using scalar selection

\begin{equation}\label{eqn:maxwellStokes:260}
\begin{aligned}
d^2 x \cdot G
&=
\gpgradezero{ d^2 x (-I) F } \\
&=
-\gpgradezero{ I d^2 x F } \\
&=
-I \lr{ d^2 x \wedge F },
\end{aligned}
\end{equation}

and
for the three volume dot product

\begin{equation}\label{eqn:maxwellStokes:280}
\begin{aligned}
d^3 x \cdot (I J)
&=
\gpgradezero{
d^3 x\, I J
} \\
&=
-\gpgradezero{
I d^3 x\, J
} \\
&=
-I \lr{ d^3 x \wedge J }.
\end{aligned}
\end{equation}

Problem 3:

Using each of the four possible spacetime volume elements, write out the components of the Stokes integral
\ref{eqn:maxwellStokes:180}.

Answer

The four possible volume and associated area elements are
\begin{equation}\label{eqn:maxwellStokes:220}
\begin{aligned}
d^3 x = c \gamma_0 \gamma_1 \gamma_2 dt dx dy & \qquad d^2 x = \gamma_1 \gamma_2 dx dy + c \gamma_2 \gamma_0 dy dt + c \gamma_0 \gamma_1 dt dx \\
d^3 x = c \gamma_0 \gamma_1 \gamma_3 dt dx dz & \qquad d^2 x = \gamma_1 \gamma_3 dx dz + c \gamma_3 \gamma_0 dz dt + c \gamma_0 \gamma_1 dt dx \\
d^3 x = c \gamma_0 \gamma_2 \gamma_3 dt dy dz & \qquad d^2 x = \gamma_2 \gamma_3 dy dz + c \gamma_3 \gamma_0 dz dt + c \gamma_0 \gamma_2 dt dy \\
d^3 x = \gamma_1 \gamma_2 \gamma_3 dx dy dz & \qquad d^2 x = \gamma_1 \gamma_2 dx dy + \gamma_2 \gamma_3 dy dz + c \gamma_3 \gamma_1 dz dx \\
\end{aligned}
\end{equation}

Wedging the area element with \( F \) will produce pseudoscalar multiples of the various \( \BE \) and \( \BB \) components, but a recipe for these components is required.

First note that for \( k \ne 0 \), the wedge \( \gamma_k \wedge \gamma_0 \wedge F \) will just select components of \( \BB \). This can be seen first by simplifying

\begin{equation}\label{eqn:maxwellStokes:300}
\begin{aligned}
I \BB
&=
\gamma_{0 1 2 3} B^m \gamma_{m 0} \\
&=
\left\{
\begin{array}{l l}
\gamma_{3 2} B^1 & \quad \mbox{\( m = 1 \)} \\
\gamma_{1 3} B^2 & \quad \mbox{\( m = 2 \)} \\
\gamma_{2 1} B^3 & \quad \mbox{\( m = 3 \)}
\end{array}
\right.,
\end{aligned}
\end{equation}

or

\begin{equation}\label{eqn:maxwellStokes:320}
I \BB = – \epsilon_{a b c} \gamma_{a b} B^c.
\end{equation}

From this it follows that

\begin{equation}\label{eqn:maxwellStokes:340}
\gamma_k \wedge \gamma_0 \wedge F = I c B^k.
\end{equation}

The electric field components are easier to pick out. Those are selected by

\begin{equation}\label{eqn:maxwellStokes:360}
\begin{aligned}
\gamma_m \wedge \gamma_n \wedge F
&= \gamma_m \wedge \gamma_n \wedge \gamma_k \wedge \gamma_0 E^k \\
&= -I E^k \epsilon_{m n k}.
\end{aligned}
\end{equation}

The respective volume element wedge products with \( J \) are

\begin{equation}\label{eqn:maxwellStokes:400}
\begin{aligned}
\inv{I} d^3 x \wedge J = \inv{c \epsilon_0} J^3
\inv{I} d^3 x \wedge J = \inv{c \epsilon_0} J^2
\inv{I} d^3 x \wedge J = \inv{c \epsilon_0} J^1,
\end{aligned}
\end{equation}

and the respective sum of surface area elements wedged with the electromagnetic field are

\begin{equation}\label{eqn:maxwellStokes:380}
\begin{aligned}
\inv{I} d^2 x \wedge F &= – \evalbar{E^3}{c \Delta t} dx dy + c \lr{ \evalbar{B^2}{\Delta x} dy – \evalbar{B^1}{\Delta y} dx } dt \\
\inv{I} d^2 x \wedge F &= \evalbar{E^2}{c \Delta t} dx dz + c \lr{ \evalbar{B^3}{\Delta x} dz – \evalbar{B^1}{\Delta z} dx } dt \\
\inv{I} d^2 x \wedge F &= – \evalbar{E^1}{c \Delta t} dy dz + c \lr{ \evalbar{B^3}{\Delta y} dz – \evalbar{B^2}{\Delta z} dy } dt \\
\inv{I} d^2 x \wedge F &= – \evalbar{E^3}{\Delta z} dy dx – \evalbar{E^2}{\Delta y} dx dz – \evalbar{E^1}{\Delta x} dz dy,
\end{aligned}
\end{equation}

so
\begin{equation}\label{eqn:maxwellStokes:381}
\begin{aligned}
\int_{\partial V} – \evalbar{E^3}{c \Delta t} dx dy + c \lr{ \evalbar{B^2}{\Delta x} dy – \evalbar{B^1}{\Delta y} dx } dt &=
c \int_V dx dy dt \inv{c \epsilon_0} J^3 \\
\int_{\partial V} \evalbar{E^2}{c \Delta t} dx dz + c \lr{ \evalbar{B^3}{\Delta x} dz – \evalbar{B^1}{\Delta z} dx } dt &=
-c \int_V dx dy dt \inv{c \epsilon_0} J^2 \\
\int_{\partial V} – \evalbar{E^1}{c \Delta t} dy dz + c \lr{ \evalbar{B^3}{\Delta y} dz – \evalbar{B^2}{\Delta z} dy } dt &=
c \int_V dx dy dt \inv{c \epsilon_0} J^1 \\
\int_{\partial V} – \evalbar{E^3}{\Delta z} dy dx – \evalbar{E^2}{\Delta y} dx dz – \evalbar{E^1}{\Delta x} dz dy &=
-\int_V dx dy dz \inv{\epsilon_0} \rho.
\end{aligned}
\end{equation}

Observe that if the volume elements are taken to their infinesimal limits, we recover the traditional differential forms of the Ampere-Maxwell and Gauss’s law equations.

References

[1] A. Macdonald. Vector and Geometric Calculus. CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform, 2012.

Updated notes for ece1229 antenna theory

March 16, 2015 ece1229 , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ,

I’ve now posted a first update of my notes for the antenna theory course that I am taking this term at UofT.

Unlike most of the other classes I have taken, I am not attempting to take comprehensive notes for this class. The class is taught on slides which go by faster than I can easily take notes for (and some of which match the textbook closely). In class I have annotated my copy of textbook with little details instead. This set of notes contains musings of details that were unclear, or in some cases, details that were provided in class, but are not in the text (and too long to pencil into my book), as well as some notes Geometric Algebra formalism for Maxwell’s equations with magnetic sources (something I’ve encountered for the first time in any real detail in this class).

The notes compilation linked above includes all of the following separate notes, some of which have been posted separately on this blog:

Notes for ece1229 antenna theory

February 4, 2015 ece1229 , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ,

I’ve now posted a first set of notes for the antenna theory course that I am taking this term at UofT.

Unlike most of the other classes I have taken, I am not attempting to take comprehensive notes for this class. The class is taught on slides that match the textbook so closely, there is little value to me taking notes that just replicate the text. Instead, I am annotating my copy of textbook with little details instead. My usual notes collection for the class will contain musings of details that were unclear, or in some cases, details that were provided in class, but are not in the text (and too long to pencil into my book.)

The notes linked above include:

  • Reading notes for chapter 2 (Fundamental Parameters of Antennas) and chapter 3 (Radiation Integrals and Auxiliary Potential Functions) of the class text.
  • Geometric Algebra musings.  How to do formulate Maxwell’s equations when magnetic sources are also included (those modeling magnetic dipoles).
  • Some problems for chapter 2 content.

Phasor form of (extended) Maxwell’s equations in Geometric Algebra

February 3, 2015 ece1229 , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ,

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Separate examinations of the phasor form of Maxwell’s equation (with electric charges and current densities), and the Dual Maxwell’s equation (i.e. allowing magnetic charges and currents) were just performed. Here the structure of these equations with both electric and magnetic charges and currents will be examined.

The vector curl and divergence form of Maxwell’s equations are

\begin{equation}\label{eqn:phasorMaxwellsWithElectricAndMagneticCharges:20}
\spacegrad \cross \boldsymbol{\mathcal{E}} = -\PD{t}{\boldsymbol{\mathcal{B}}} -\BM
\end{equation}
\begin{equation}\label{eqn:phasorMaxwellsWithElectricAndMagneticCharges:40}
\spacegrad \cross \boldsymbol{\mathcal{H}} = \boldsymbol{\mathcal{J}} + \PD{t}{\boldsymbol{\mathcal{D}}}
\end{equation}
\begin{equation}\label{eqn:phasorMaxwellsWithElectricAndMagneticCharges:60}
\spacegrad \cdot \boldsymbol{\mathcal{D}} = \rho
\end{equation}
\begin{equation}\label{eqn:phasorMaxwellsWithElectricAndMagneticCharges:80}
\spacegrad \cdot \boldsymbol{\mathcal{B}} = \rho_m.
\end{equation}

In phasor form these are

\begin{equation}\label{eqn:phasorMaxwellsWithElectricAndMagneticCharges:100}
\spacegrad \cross \BE = – j k c \BB -\BM
\end{equation}
\begin{equation}\label{eqn:phasorMaxwellsWithElectricAndMagneticCharges:120}
\spacegrad \cross \BH = \BJ + j k c \BD
\end{equation}
\begin{equation}\label{eqn:phasorMaxwellsWithElectricAndMagneticCharges:140}
\spacegrad \cdot \BD = \rho
\end{equation}
\begin{equation}\label{eqn:phasorMaxwellsWithElectricAndMagneticCharges:160}
\spacegrad \cdot \BB = \rho_m.
\end{equation}

Switching to \( \BE = \BD/\epsilon_0, \BB = \mu_0 \BH\) fields (even though these aren’t the primary fields in engineering), gives

\begin{equation}\label{eqn:phasorMaxwellsWithElectricAndMagneticCharges:180}
\spacegrad \cross \BE = – j k (c \BB) -\BM
\end{equation}
\begin{equation}\label{eqn:phasorMaxwellsWithElectricAndMagneticCharges:200}
\spacegrad \cross (c \BB) = \frac{\BJ}{\epsilon_0 c} + j k \BE
\end{equation}
\begin{equation}\label{eqn:phasorMaxwellsWithElectricAndMagneticCharges:220}
\spacegrad \cdot \BE = \rho/\epsilon_0
\end{equation}
\begin{equation}\label{eqn:phasorMaxwellsWithElectricAndMagneticCharges:240}
\spacegrad \cdot (c \BB) = c \rho_m.
\end{equation}

Finally, using

\begin{equation}\label{eqn:phasorMaxwellsWithElectricAndMagneticCharges:260}
\Bf \Bg = \Bf \cdot \Bg + I \Bf \cross \Bg,
\end{equation}

the divergence and curl contributions of each of the fields can be grouped

\begin{equation}\label{eqn:phasorMaxwellsWithElectricAndMagneticCharges:300}
\spacegrad \BE = \rho/\epsilon_0 – \lr{ j k (c \BB) +\BM} I
\end{equation}
\begin{equation}\label{eqn:phasorMaxwellsWithElectricAndMagneticCharges:320}
\spacegrad (c \BB I) = c \rho_m I – \lr{ \frac{\BJ}{\epsilon_0 c} + j k \BE },
\end{equation}

or

\begin{equation}\label{eqn:phasorMaxwellsWithElectricAndMagneticCharges:340}
\spacegrad \lr{ \BE + c \BB I }
=
\rho/\epsilon_0 – \lr{ j k (c \BB) +\BM} I
+
c \rho_m I – \lr{ \frac{\BJ}{\epsilon_0 c} + j k \BE }.
\end{equation}

Regrouping gives Maxwell’s equations including both electric and magnetic sources
\begin{equation}\label{eqn:phasorMaxwellsWithElectricAndMagneticCharges:360}
\boxed{
\lr{ \spacegrad + j k } \lr{ \BE + c \BB I }
=
\inv{\epsilon_0 c} \lr{ c \rho – \BJ }
+ \lr{ c \rho_m – \BM } I.
}
\end{equation}

It was observed that these can be put into a tidy four vector form by premultiplying by \( \gamma_0 \), where

\begin{equation}\label{eqn:phasorMaxwellsWithElectricAndMagneticCharges:400}
J = \gamma_\mu J^\mu = \lr{ c \rho, \BJ }
\end{equation}
\begin{equation}\label{eqn:phasorMaxwellsWithElectricAndMagneticCharges:420}
M = \gamma_\mu M^\mu = \lr{ c \rho_m, \BM }
\end{equation}
\begin{equation}\label{eqn:phasorMaxwellsWithElectricAndMagneticCharges:440}
\grad = \gamma_0 \lr{ \spacegrad + j k } = \gamma^k \partial_k + j k \gamma_0,
\end{equation}

That gives

\begin{equation}\label{eqn:phasorMaxwellsWithElectricAndMagneticCharges:460}
\boxed{
\grad \lr{ \BE + c \BB I } = \frac{J}{\epsilon_0 c} + M I.
}
\end{equation}

When there were only electric sources, it was observed that potential solutions were of the form \( \BE + c \BB I \propto \grad \wedge A \), whereas when there was only magnetic sources it was observed that potential solutions were of the form \( \BE + c \BB I \propto (\grad \wedge F) I \). It seems reasonable to attempt a trial solution that contains both such contributions, say

\begin{equation}\label{eqn:phasorMaxwellsWithElectricAndMagneticCharges:480}
\BE + c \BB I = \grad \wedge A_{\textrm{e}} + \grad \wedge A_{\textrm{m}} I.
\end{equation}

Without any loss of generality Lorentz gauge conditions can be imposed on the four-vector fields \( A_{\textrm{e}}, A_{\textrm{m}} \). Those conditions are

\begin{equation}\label{eqn:phasorMaxwellsWithElectricAndMagneticCharges:500}
\grad \cdot A_{\textrm{e}} = \grad \cdot A_{\textrm{m}} = 0.
\end{equation}

Since \( \grad X = \grad \cdot X + \grad \wedge X \), for any four vector \( X \), the trial solution \ref{eqn:phasorMaxwellsWithElectricAndMagneticCharges:480} is reduced to

\begin{equation}\label{eqn:phasorMaxwellsWithElectricAndMagneticCharges:520}
\BE + c \BB I = \grad A_{\textrm{e}} + \grad A_{\textrm{m}} I.
\end{equation}

Maxwell’s equation is now

\begin{equation}\label{eqn:phasorMaxwellsWithElectricAndMagneticCharges:540}
\begin{aligned}
\frac{J}{\epsilon_0 c} + M I
&=
\grad^2 \lr{ A_{\textrm{e}} + A_{\textrm{m}} I } \\
&=
\gamma_0 \lr{ \spacegrad + j k }
\gamma_0 \lr{ \spacegrad + j k }
\lr{ A_{\textrm{e}} + A_{\textrm{m}} I } \\
&=
\lr{ -\spacegrad + j k }
\lr{ \spacegrad + j k }
\lr{ A_{\textrm{e}} + A_{\textrm{m}} I } \\
&=
-\lr{ \spacegrad^2 + k^2 }
\lr{ A_{\textrm{e}} + A_{\textrm{m}} I }.
\end{aligned}
\end{equation}

Notice how tidily this separates into vector and trivector components. Those are

\begin{equation}\label{eqn:phasorMaxwellsWithElectricAndMagneticCharges:580}
-\lr{ \spacegrad^2 + k^2 } A_{\textrm{e}} = \frac{J}{\epsilon_0 c}
\end{equation}
\begin{equation}\label{eqn:phasorMaxwellsWithElectricAndMagneticCharges:600}
-\lr{ \spacegrad^2 + k^2 } A_{\textrm{m}} = M.
\end{equation}

The result is a single Helmholtz equation for each of the electric and magnetic four-potentials, and both can be solved completely independently. This was claimed in class, but now the underlying reason is clear.

Because a single frequency phasor relationship was implied the scalar components of each of these four potentials is determined by the Lorentz gauge condition. For example

\begin{equation}\label{eqn:phasorMaxwellsWithElectricAndMagneticCharges:620}
\begin{aligned}
0
&=
\spacegrad \cdot \lr{ A_{\textrm{e}} e^{j k c t} } \\
&=
\lr{ \gamma^0 \inv{c} \PD{t}{} + \gamma^k \PD{x^k}{} } \cdot
\lr{
\gamma_0 A_{\textrm{e}}^0 e^{j k c t}
+ \gamma_m A_{\textrm{e}}^m e^{j k c t}
} \\
&=
\lr{ \gamma^0 j k + \gamma^r \PD{x^r}{} } \cdot
\lr{
\gamma_0 A_{\textrm{e}}^0
+ \gamma_s A_{\textrm{e}}^s
}
e^{j k c t} \\
&=
\lr{
j k
A_{\textrm{e}}^0
+
\spacegrad \cdot
\BA_{\textrm{e}}
}
e^{j k c t},
\end{aligned}
\end{equation}

so

\begin{equation}\label{eqn:phasorMaxwellsWithElectricAndMagneticCharges:640}
A_{\textrm{e}}^0
=\frac{ j} { k }
\spacegrad \cdot
\BA_{\textrm{e}}.
\end{equation}

The same sort of relationship will apply to the magnetic potential too. This means that the Helmholtz equations can be solved in the three vector space as

\begin{equation}\label{eqn:phasorMaxwellsWithElectricAndMagneticCharges:680}
\lr{ \spacegrad^2 + k^2 } \BA_{\textrm{e}} = -\frac{\BJ}{\epsilon_0 c}
\end{equation}
\begin{equation}\label{eqn:phasorMaxwellsWithElectricAndMagneticCharges:700}
\lr{ \spacegrad^2 + k^2 } \BA_{\textrm{m}} = -\BM.
\end{equation}