pseudoscalar

Maxwell equation boundary conditions in media

September 10, 2016 math and physics play , , , , , , , , ,

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Following [1], Maxwell’s equations in media, including both electric and magnetic sources and currents are

\begin{equation}\label{eqn:boundaryConditionsInMedia:40}
\spacegrad \cross \BE = -\BM – \partial_t \BB
\end{equation}
\begin{equation}\label{eqn:boundaryConditionsInMedia:60}
\spacegrad \cross \BH = \BJ + \partial_t \BD
\end{equation}
\begin{equation}\label{eqn:boundaryConditionsInMedia:80}
\spacegrad \cdot \BD = \rho
\end{equation}
\begin{equation}\label{eqn:boundaryConditionsInMedia:100}
\spacegrad \cdot \BB = \rho_{\textrm{m}}
\end{equation}

In general, it is not possible to assemble these into a single Geometric Algebra equation unless specific assumptions about the permeabilities are made, but we can still use Geometric Algebra to examine the boundary condition question. First, these equations can be expressed in a more natural multivector form

\begin{equation}\label{eqn:boundaryConditionsInMedia:140}
\spacegrad \wedge \BE = -I \lr{ \BM + \partial_t \BB }
\end{equation}
\begin{equation}\label{eqn:boundaryConditionsInMedia:160}
\spacegrad \wedge \BH = I \lr{ \BJ + \partial_t \BD }
\end{equation}
\begin{equation}\label{eqn:boundaryConditionsInMedia:180}
\spacegrad \cdot \BD = \rho
\end{equation}
\begin{equation}\label{eqn:boundaryConditionsInMedia:200}
\spacegrad \cdot \BB = \rho_{\textrm{m}}
\end{equation}

Then duality relations can be used on the divergences to write all four equations in their curl form

\begin{equation}\label{eqn:boundaryConditionsInMedia:240}
\spacegrad \wedge \BE = -I \lr{ \BM + \partial_t \BB }
\end{equation}
\begin{equation}\label{eqn:boundaryConditionsInMedia:260}
\spacegrad \wedge \BH = I \lr{ \BJ + \partial_t \BD }
\end{equation}
\begin{equation}\label{eqn:boundaryConditionsInMedia:280}
\spacegrad \wedge (I\BD) = \rho I
\end{equation}
\begin{equation}\label{eqn:boundaryConditionsInMedia:300}
\spacegrad \wedge (I\BB) = \rho_{\textrm{m}} I.
\end{equation}

Now it is possible to employ Stokes theorem to each of these. The usual procedure is to both use the loops of fig. 2 and the pillbox of fig. 1, where in both cases the height is made infinitesimal.

boundaryConditionsTwoSurfacesFig1

fig 1. Two surfaces normal to the interface.

boundaryConditionsPillBoxFig2

fig 2. A pillbox volume encompassing the interface.

With all these relations expressed in curl form as above, we can use just the pillbox configuration to evaluate the Stokes integrals.
Let the height \( h \) be measured along the normal axis, and assume that all the charges and currents are localized to the surface

\begin{equation}\label{eqn:boundaryConditionsInMedia:320}
\begin{aligned}
\BM &= \BM_{\textrm{s}} \delta( h ) \\
\BJ &= \BJ_{\textrm{s}} \delta( h ) \\
\rho &= \rho_{\textrm{s}} \delta( h ) \\
\rho_{\textrm{m}} &= \rho_{\textrm{m}\textrm{s}} \delta( h ),
\end{aligned}
\end{equation}

we can enumerate the Stokes integrals \( \int d^3 \Bx \cdot \lr{ \spacegrad \wedge \BX } = \oint_{\partial V} d^2 \Bx \cdot \BX \). The three-volume area element will be written as \( d^3 \Bx = d^2 \Bx \wedge \ncap dh \), giving

\begin{equation}\label{eqn:boundaryConditionsInMedia:360}
\oint_{\partial V} d^2 \Bx \cdot \BE = -\int (d^2 \Bx \wedge \ncap) \cdot \lr{ I \BM_{\textrm{s}} + \partial_t I \BB \Delta h}
\end{equation}
\begin{equation}\label{eqn:boundaryConditionsInMedia:380}
\oint_{\partial V} d^2 \Bx \cdot \BH = \int (d^2 \Bx \wedge \ncap) \cdot \lr{ I \BJ_{\textrm{s}} + \partial_t I \BD \Delta h}
\end{equation}
\begin{equation}\label{eqn:boundaryConditionsInMedia:400}
\oint_{\partial V} d^2 \Bx \cdot (I\BD) = \int (d^2 \Bx \wedge \ncap) \cdot \lr{ \rho_{\textrm{s}} I }
\end{equation}
\begin{equation}\label{eqn:boundaryConditionsInMedia:420}
\oint_{\partial V} d^2 \Bx \cdot (I\BB) = \int (d^2 \Bx \wedge \ncap) \cdot \lr{ \rho_{\textrm{m}\textrm{s}} I }
\end{equation}

In the limit with \( \Delta h \rightarrow 0 \), the LHS integrals are reduced to just the top and bottom surfaces, and the \( \Delta h \) contributions on the RHS are eliminated. With \( i = I \ncap \), and \( d^2 \Bx = dA\, i \) on the top surface, we are left with

\begin{equation}\label{eqn:boundaryConditionsInMedia:460}
0 = \int dA \lr{ i \cdot \Delta \BE + I \cdot \lr{ I \BM_{\textrm{s}} } }
\end{equation}
\begin{equation}\label{eqn:boundaryConditionsInMedia:480}
0 = \int dA \lr{ i \cdot \Delta \BH – I \cdot \lr{ I \BJ_{\textrm{s}} } }
\end{equation}
\begin{equation}\label{eqn:boundaryConditionsInMedia:500}
0 = \int dA \lr{ i \cdot \Delta (I\BD) + \rho_{\textrm{s}} }
\end{equation}
\begin{equation}\label{eqn:boundaryConditionsInMedia:520}
0 = \int dA \lr{ i \cdot \Delta (I\BB) + \rho_{\textrm{m}\textrm{s}} }
\end{equation}

Consider the first integral. Any component of \( \BE \) that is normal to the plane of the pillbox top (or bottom) has no contribution to the integral, so this constraint is one that effects only the tangential components \( \ncap (\ncap \wedge (\Delta \BE)) \). Writing out the vector portion of the integrand, we have

\begin{equation}\label{eqn:boundaryConditionsInMedia:540}
\begin{aligned}
i \cdot \Delta \BE + I \cdot \lr{ I \BM_{\textrm{s}} }
&=
\gpgradeone{ i \Delta \BE + I^2 \BM_{\textrm{s}} } \\
&=
\gpgradeone{ I \ncap \Delta \BE – \BM_{\textrm{s}} } \\
&=
\gpgradeone{ I \ncap \ncap (\ncap \wedge \Delta \BE) – \BM_{\textrm{s}} } \\
&=
\gpgradeone{ I (\ncap \wedge (\Delta \BE)) – \BM_{\textrm{s}} } \\
&=
\gpgradeone{ -\ncap \cross (\Delta \BE) – \BM_{\textrm{s}} }.
\end{aligned}
\end{equation}

The dot product (a scalar) in the two surface charge integrals can also be reduced

\begin{equation}\label{eqn:boundaryConditionsInMedia:560}
\begin{aligned}
i \cdot \Delta (I\BD)
&=
\gpgradezero{ i \Delta (I\BD) } \\
&=
\gpgradezero{ I \ncap \Delta (I\BD) } \\
&=
\gpgradezero{ -\ncap \Delta \BD } \\
&=
-\ncap \cdot \Delta \BD,
\end{aligned}
\end{equation}

so the integral equations are satisfied provided

\begin{equation}\label{eqn:boundaryConditionsInMedia:580}
\boxed{
\begin{aligned}
\ncap \cross (\BE_2 – \BE_1) &= – \BM_{\textrm{s}} \\
\ncap \cross (\BH_2 – \BH_1) &= \BJ_{\textrm{s}} \\
\ncap \cdot (\BD_2 – \BD_1) &= \rho_{\textrm{s}} \\
\ncap \cdot (\BB_2 – \BB_1) &= \rho_{\textrm{m}\textrm{s}}.
\end{aligned}
}
\end{equation}

It is tempting to try to assemble these into a results expressed in terms of a four-vector surface current and composite STA bivector fields like the \( F = \BE + I c \BB \) that we can use for the free space Maxwell’s equation. Dimensionally, we need something with velocity in that mix, but what velocity should be used when the speed of the field propagation in each media is potentially different?

References

[1] Constantine A Balanis. Advanced engineering electromagnetics. Wiley New York, 1989.

Maxwell equation boundary conditions

September 6, 2016 math and physics play , , , , , , , , , , , , , ,

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Motivation

boundaryConditionsTwoSurfacesFig1

fig 1. Two surfaces normal to the interface.

Most electrodynamics textbooks either start with or contain a treatment of boundary value conditions. These typically involve evaluating Maxwell’s equations over areas or volumes of decreasing height, such as those illustrated in fig. 1, and fig. 2. These represent surfaces and volumes where the height is allowed to decrease to infinitesimal levels, and are traditionally used to find the boundary value constraints of the normal and tangential components of the electric and magnetic fields.

boundaryConditionsPillBoxFig2

fig 2. A pillbox volume encompassing the interface.

More advanced topics, such as evaluation of the Fresnel reflection and transmission equations, also rely on similar consideration of boundary value constraints. I’ve wondered for a long time how the Fresnel equations could be attacked by looking at the boundary conditions for the combined field \( F = \BE + I c \BB \), instead of the considering them separately.

A unified approach.

The Geometric Algebra (and relativistic tensor) formulations of Maxwell’s equations put the electric and magnetic fields on equal footings. It is in fact possible to specify the boundary value constraints on the fields without first separating Maxwell’s equations into their traditional forms. The starting point in Geometric Algebra is Maxwell’s equation, premultiplied by a stationary observer’s timelike basis vector

\begin{equation}\label{eqn:maxwellBoundaryConditions:20}
\gamma_0 \grad F = \inv{\epsilon_0 c} \gamma_0 J,
\end{equation}

or

\begin{equation}\label{eqn:maxwellBoundaryConditions:40}
\lr{ \partial_0 + \spacegrad} F = \frac{\rho}{\epsilon_0} – \frac{\BJ}{\epsilon_0}.
\end{equation}

The electrodynamic field \(F = \BE + I c \BB\) is a multivector in this spatial domain (whereas it is a bivector in the spacetime algebra domain), and has vector and bivector components. The product of the spatial gradient and the field can still be split into dot and curl components \(\spacegrad M = \spacegrad \cdot M + \spacegrad \wedge M \). If \(M = \sum M_i \), where \(M_i\) is an grade \(i\) blade, then we give this the Hestenes’ [1] definitions

\begin{equation}\label{eqn:maxwellBoundaryConditions:60}
\begin{aligned}
\spacegrad \cdot M &= \sum_i \gpgrade{\spacegrad M_i}{i-1} \\
\spacegrad \wedge M &= \sum_i \gpgrade{\spacegrad M_i}{i+1}.
\end{aligned}
\end{equation}

With that said, Maxwell’s equation can be rearranged into a pair of multivector equations

\begin{equation}\label{eqn:maxwellBoundaryConditions:80}
\begin{aligned}
\spacegrad \cdot F &= \gpgrade{-\partial_0 F + \frac{\rho}{\epsilon_0} – \frac{\BJ}{\epsilon_0 c}}{0,1} \\
\spacegrad \wedge F &= \gpgrade{-\partial_0 F + \frac{\rho}{\epsilon_0} – \frac{\BJ}{\epsilon_0 c}}{2,3},
\end{aligned}
\end{equation}

The latter equation can be integrated with Stokes theorem, but we need to apply a duality transformation to the latter in order to apply Stokes to it

\begin{equation}\label{eqn:maxwellBoundaryConditions:120}
\begin{aligned}
\spacegrad \cdot F
&=
-I^2 \spacegrad \cdot F \\
&=
-I^2 \gpgrade{\spacegrad F}{0,1} \\
&=
-I \gpgrade{I \spacegrad F}{2,3} \\
&=
-I \spacegrad \wedge (IF),
\end{aligned}
\end{equation}

so

\begin{equation}\label{eqn:maxwellBoundaryConditions:100}
\begin{aligned}
\spacegrad \wedge (I F) &= I \lr{ -\inv{c} \partial_t \BE + \frac{\rho}{\epsilon_0} – \frac{\BJ}{\epsilon_0 c} } \\
\spacegrad \wedge F &= -I \partial_t \BB.
\end{aligned}
\end{equation}

Integrating each of these over the pillbox volume gives

\begin{equation}\label{eqn:maxwellBoundaryConditions:140}
\begin{aligned}
\oint_{\partial V} d^2 \Bx \cdot (I F)
&=
\int_{V} d^3 \Bx \cdot \lr{ I \lr{ -\inv{c} \partial_t \BE + \frac{\rho}{\epsilon_0} – \frac{\BJ}{\epsilon_0 c} } } \\
\oint_{\partial V} d^2 \Bx \cdot F
&=
– \partial_t \int_{V} d^3 \Bx \cdot \lr{ I \BB }.
\end{aligned}
\end{equation}

In the absence of charges and currents on the surface, and if the height of the volume is reduced to zero, the volume integrals vanish, and only the upper surfaces of the pillbox contribute to the surface integrals.

\begin{equation}\label{eqn:maxwellBoundaryConditions:200}
\begin{aligned}
\oint_{\partial V} d^2 \Bx \cdot (I F) &= 0 \\
\oint_{\partial V} d^2 \Bx \cdot F &= 0.
\end{aligned}
\end{equation}

With a multivector \(F\) in the mix, the geometric meaning of these integrals is not terribly clear. They do describe the boundary conditions, but to see exactly what those are, we can now resort to the split of \(F\) into its electric and magnetic fields. Let’s look at the non-dual integral to start with

\begin{equation}\label{eqn:maxwellBoundaryConditions:160}
\begin{aligned}
\oint_{\partial V} d^2 \Bx \cdot F
&=
\oint_{\partial V} d^2 \Bx \cdot \lr{ \BE + I c \BB } \\
&=
\oint_{\partial V} d^2 \Bx \cdot \BE + I c d^2 \Bx \wedge \BB \\
&=
0.
\end{aligned}
\end{equation}

No component of \(\BE\) that is normal to the surface contributes to \(d^2 \Bx \cdot \BE \), whereas only components of \(\BB\) that are normal contribute to \(d^2 \Bx \wedge \BB \). That means that we must have tangential components of \(\BE\) and the normal components of \(\BB\) matching on the surfaces

\begin{equation}\label{eqn:maxwellBoundaryConditions:180}
\begin{aligned}
\lr{\BE_2 \wedge \ncap} \ncap – \lr{\BE_1 \wedge (-\ncap)} (-\ncap) &= 0 \\
\lr{\BB_2 \cdot \ncap} \ncap – \lr{\BB_1 \cdot (-\ncap)} (-\ncap) &= 0 .
\end{aligned}
\end{equation}

Similarly, for the dot product of the dual field, this is

\begin{equation}\label{eqn:maxwellBoundaryConditions:220}
\begin{aligned}
\oint_{\partial V} d^2 \Bx \cdot (I F)
&=
\oint_{\partial V} d^2 \Bx \cdot (I \BE – c \BB) \\
&=
\oint_{\partial V} I d^2 \Bx \wedge \BE – c d^2 \Bx \cdot \BB.
\end{aligned}
\end{equation}

For this integral, only the normal components of \(\BE\) contribute, and only the tangential components of \(\BB\) contribute. This means that

\begin{equation}\label{eqn:maxwellBoundaryConditions:240}
\begin{aligned}
\lr{\BE_2 \cdot \ncap} \ncap – \lr{\BE_1 \cdot (-\ncap)} (-\ncap) &= 0 \\
\lr{\BB_2 \wedge \ncap} \ncap – \lr{\BB_1 \wedge (-\ncap)} (-\ncap) &= 0.
\end{aligned}
\end{equation}

This is why we end up with a seemingly strange mix of tangential and normal components of the electric and magnetic fields. These constraints can be summarized as

\begin{equation}\label{eqn:maxwellBoundaryConditions:260}
\begin{aligned}
( \BE_2 – \BE_1 ) \cdot \ncap &= 0 \\
( \BE_2 – \BE_1 ) \wedge \ncap &= 0 \\
( \BB_2 – \BB_1 ) \cdot \ncap &= 0 \\
( \BB_2 – \BB_1 ) \wedge \ncap &= 0
\end{aligned}
\end{equation}

These relationships are usually expressed in terms of all of \(\BE, \BD, \BB\) and \(\BH \). Because I’d started with Maxwell’s equations for free space, I don’t have the \( \epsilon \) and \( \mu \) factors that produce those more general relationships. Those more general boundary value relationships are usually the starting point for the Fresnel interface analysis. It is also possible to further generalize these relationships to include charges and currents on the surface.

References

[1] D. Hestenes. New Foundations for Classical Mechanics. Kluwer Academic Publishers, 1999.

Stokes integrals for Maxwell’s equations in Geometric Algebra

September 4, 2016 math and physics play , , , , , , , , , ,

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Recall that the relativistic form of Maxwell’s equation in Geometric Algebra is

\begin{equation}\label{eqn:maxwellStokes:20}
\grad F = \inv{c \epsilon_0} J.
\end{equation}

where \( \grad = \gamma^\mu \partial_\mu \) is the spacetime gradient, and \( J = (c\rho, \BJ) = J^\mu \gamma_\mu \) is the four (vector) current density. The pseudoscalar for the space is denoted \( I = \gamma_0 \gamma_1 \gamma_2 \gamma_3 \), where the basis elements satisfy \( \gamma_0^2 = 1 = -\gamma_k^2 \), and a dual basis satisfies \( \gamma_\mu \cdot \gamma^\nu = \delta_\mu^\nu \). The electromagnetic field \( F \) is a composite multivector \( F = \BE + I c \BB \). This is actually a bivector because spatial vectors have a bivector representation in the space time algebra of the form \( \BE = E^k \gamma_k \gamma_0 \).

Previously, I wrote out the Stokes integrals for Maxwell’s equation in GA form using some three parameter spacetime manifold volumes. This time I’m going to use two and three parameter spatial volumes, again with the Geometric Algebra form of Stokes theorem.

Multiplication by a timelike unit vector transforms Maxwell’s equation from their relativistic form. When that vector is the standard basis timelike unit vector \( \gamma_0 \), we obtain Maxwell’s equations from the point of view of a stationary observer

\begin{equation}\label{eqn:stokesMaxwellSpaceTimeSplit:40}
\lr{\partial_0 + \spacegrad} \lr{ \BE + c I \BB } = \inv{\epsilon_0 c} \lr{ c \rho – \BJ },
\end{equation}

Extracting the scalar, vector, bivector, and trivector grades respectively, we have
\begin{equation}\label{eqn:stokesMaxwellSpaceTimeSplit:60}
\begin{aligned}
\spacegrad \cdot \BE &= \frac{\rho}{\epsilon_0} \\
c I \spacegrad \wedge \BB &= -\partial_0 \BE – \inv{\epsilon_0 c} \BJ \\
\spacegrad \wedge \BE &= – I c \partial_0 \BB \\
c I \spacegrad \cdot \BB &= 0.
\end{aligned}
\end{equation}

Each of these can be written as a curl equation

\begin{equation}\label{eqn:stokesMaxwellSpaceTimeSplit:80}
\boxed{
\begin{aligned}
\spacegrad \wedge (I \BE) &= I \frac{\rho}{\epsilon_0} \\
\inv{\mu_0} \spacegrad \wedge \BB &= \epsilon_0 I \partial_t \BE + I \BJ \\
\spacegrad \wedge \BE &= -I \partial_t \BB \\
\spacegrad \wedge (I \BB) &= 0,
\end{aligned}
}
\end{equation}

a form that allows for direct application of Stokes integrals. The first and last of these require a three parameter volume element, whereas the two bivector grade equations can be integrated using either two or three parameter volume elements. Suppose that we have can parameterize the space with parameters \( u, v, w \), for which the gradient has the representation

\begin{equation}\label{eqn:stokesMaxwellSpaceTimeSplit:100}
\spacegrad = \Bx^u \partial_u + \Bx^v \partial_v + \Bx^w \partial_w,
\end{equation}

but we integrate over a two parameter subset of this space spanned by \( \Bx(u,v) \), with area element

\begin{equation}\label{eqn:stokesMaxwellSpaceTimeSplit:120}
\begin{aligned}
d^2 \Bx
&= d\Bx_u \wedge d\Bx_v \\
&=
\PD{u}{\Bx}
\wedge
\PD{v}{\Bx}
\,du dv \\
&=
\Bx_u
\wedge
\Bx_v
\,du dv,
\end{aligned}
\end{equation}

as illustrated in fig. 1.

 

twoParameterAreaElementFig1

fig. 1. Two parameter manifold.

Our curvilinear coordinates \( \Bx_u, \Bx_v, \Bx_w \) are dual to the reciprocal basis \( \Bx^u, \Bx^v, \Bx^w \), but we won’t actually have to calculate that reciprocal basis. Instead we need only know that it can be calculated and is defined by the relations \( \Bx_a \cdot \Bx^b = \delta_a^b \). Knowing that we can reduce (say),

\begin{equation}\label{eqn:stokesMaxwellSpaceTimeSplit:140}
\begin{aligned}
d^2 \Bx \cdot ( \spacegrad \wedge \BE )
&=
d^2 \Bx \cdot ( \Bx^a \partial_a \wedge \BE ) \\
&=
(\Bx_u \wedge \Bx_v) \cdot ( \Bx^a \wedge \partial_a \BE ) \,du dv \\
&=
(((\Bx_u \wedge \Bx_v) \cdot \Bx^a) \cdot \partial_a \BE \,du dv \\
&=
d\Bx_u \cdot \partial_v \BE \,dv
-d\Bx_v \cdot \partial_u \BE \,du,
\end{aligned}
\end{equation}

Because each of the differentials, for example \( d\Bx_u = (\PDi{u}{\Bx}) du \), is calculated with the other (i.e.\( v \)) held constant, this is directly integrable, leaving

\begin{equation}\label{eqn:stokesMaxwellSpaceTimeSplit:160}
\begin{aligned}
\int d^2 \Bx \cdot ( \spacegrad \wedge \BE )
&=
\int \evalrange{\lr{d\Bx_u \cdot \BE}}{v=0}{v=1}
-\int \evalrange{\lr{d\Bx_v \cdot \BE}}{u=0}{u=1} \\
&=
\oint d\Bx \cdot \BE.
\end{aligned}
\end{equation}

That direct integration of one of the parameters, while the others are held constant, is the basic idea behind Stokes theorem.

The pseudoscalar grade Maxwell’s equations from \ref{eqn:stokesMaxwellSpaceTimeSplit:80} require a three parameter volume element to apply Stokes theorem to. Again, allowing for curvilinear coordinates such a differential expands as

\begin{equation}\label{eqn:stokesMaxwellSpaceTimeSplit:180}
\begin{aligned}
d^3 \Bx \cdot (\spacegrad \wedge (I\BB))
&=
(( \Bx_u \wedge \Bx_v \wedge \Bx_w ) \cdot \Bx^a ) \cdot \partial_a (I\BB) \,du dv dw \\
&=
(d\Bx_u \wedge d\Bx_v) \cdot \partial_w (I\BB) dw
+(d\Bx_v \wedge d\Bx_w) \cdot \partial_u (I\BB) du
+(d\Bx_w \wedge d\Bx_u) \cdot \partial_v (I\BB) dv.
\end{aligned}
\end{equation}

Like the two parameter volume, this is directly integrable

\begin{equation}\label{eqn:stokesMaxwellSpaceTimeSplit:200}
\int
d^3 \Bx \cdot (\spacegrad \wedge (I\BB))
=
\int \evalbar{(d\Bx_u \wedge d\Bx_v) \cdot (I\BB) }{\Delta w}
+\int \evalbar{(d\Bx_v \wedge d\Bx_w) \cdot (I\BB)}{\Delta u}
+\int \evalbar{(d\Bx_w \wedge d\Bx_u) \cdot (I\BB)}{\Delta v}.
\end{equation}

After some thought (or a craft project such as that of fig. 2) is can be observed that this is conceptually an oriented surface integral

threeParameterSurfaceFig2

fig. 2. Oriented three parameter surface.

Noting that

\begin{equation}\label{eqn:stokesMaxwellSpaceTimeSplit:221}
\begin{aligned}
d^2 \Bx \cdot (I\Bf)
&= \gpgradezero{ d^2 \Bx I B } \\
&= I (d^2\Bx \wedge \Bf)
\end{aligned}
\end{equation}

we can now write down the results of application of Stokes theorem to each of Maxwell’s equations in their curl forms

\begin{equation}\label{eqn:stokesMaxwellSpaceTimeSplit:220}
\boxed{
\begin{aligned}
\oint d\Bx \cdot \BE &= -I \partial_t \int d^2 \Bx \wedge \BB \\
\inv{\mu_0} \oint d\Bx \cdot \BB &= \epsilon_0 I \partial_t \int d^2 \Bx \wedge \BE + I \int d^2 \Bx \wedge \BJ \\
\oint d^2 \Bx \wedge \BE &= \inv{\epsilon_0} \int (d^3 \Bx \cdot I) \rho \\
\oint d^2 \Bx \wedge \BB &= 0.
\end{aligned}
}
\end{equation}

In the three parameter surface integrals the specific meaning to apply to \( d^2 \Bx \wedge \Bf \) is
\begin{equation}\label{eqn:stokesMaxwellSpaceTimeSplit:240}
\oint d^2 \Bx \wedge \Bf
=
\int \evalbar{\lr{d\Bx_u \wedge d\Bx_v \wedge \Bf}}{\Delta w}
+\int \evalbar{\lr{d\Bx_v \wedge d\Bx_w \wedge \Bf}}{\Delta u}
+\int \evalbar{\lr{d\Bx_w \wedge d\Bx_u \wedge \Bf}}{\Delta v}.
\end{equation}

Note that in each case only the component of the vector \( \Bf \) that is projected onto the normal to the area element contributes.

Application of Stokes Theorem to the Maxwell equation

September 3, 2016 math and physics play , , , , , , , , , , , ,

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The relativistic form of Maxwell’s equation in Geometric Algebra is

\begin{equation}\label{eqn:maxwellStokes:20}
\grad F = \inv{c \epsilon_0} J,
\end{equation}

where \( \grad = \gamma^\mu \partial_\mu \) is the spacetime gradient, and \( J = (c\rho, \BJ) = J^\mu \gamma_\mu \) is the four (vector) current density. The pseudoscalar for the space is denoted \( I = \gamma_0 \gamma_1 \gamma_2 \gamma_3 \), where the basis elements satisfy \( \gamma_0^2 = 1 = -\gamma_k^2 \), and a dual basis satisfies \( \gamma_\mu \cdot \gamma^\nu = \delta_\mu^\nu \). The electromagnetic field \( F \) is a composite multivector \( F = \BE + I c \BB \). This is actually a bivector because spatial vectors have a bivector representation in the space time algebra of the form \( \BE = E^k \gamma_k \gamma_0 \).

A dual representation, with \( F = I G \) is also possible

\begin{equation}\label{eqn:maxwellStokes:60}
\grad G = \frac{I}{c \epsilon_0} J.
\end{equation}

Either form of Maxwell’s equation can be split into grade one and three components. The standard (non-dual) form is

\begin{equation}\label{eqn:maxwellStokes:40}
\begin{aligned}
\grad \cdot F &= \inv{c \epsilon_0} J \\
\grad \wedge F &= 0,
\end{aligned}
\end{equation}

and the dual form is

\begin{equation}\label{eqn:maxwellStokes:41}
\begin{aligned}
\grad \cdot G &= 0 \\
\grad \wedge G &= \frac{I}{c \epsilon_0} J.
\end{aligned}
\end{equation}

In both cases a potential representation \( F = \grad \wedge A \), where \( A \) is a four vector potential can be used to kill off the non-current equation. Such a potential representation reduces Maxwell’s equation to

\begin{equation}\label{eqn:maxwellStokes:80}
\grad \cdot F = \inv{c \epsilon_0} J,
\end{equation}

or
\begin{equation}\label{eqn:maxwellStokes:100}
\grad \wedge G = \frac{I}{c \epsilon_0} J.
\end{equation}

In both cases, these reduce to
\begin{equation}\label{eqn:maxwellStokes:120}
\grad^2 A – \grad \lr{ \grad \cdot A } = \inv{c \epsilon_0} J.
\end{equation}

This can clearly be further simplified by using the Lorentz gauge, where \( \grad \cdot A = 0 \). However, the aim for now is to try applying Stokes theorem to Maxwell’s equation. The dual form \ref{eqn:maxwellStokes:100} has the curl structure required for the application of Stokes. Suppose that we evaluate this curl over the three parameter volume element \( d^3 x = i\, dx^0 dx^1 dx^2 \), where \( i = \gamma_0 \gamma_1 \gamma_2 \) is the unit pseudoscalar for the spacetime volume element.

\begin{equation}\label{eqn:maxwellStokes:101}
\begin{aligned}
\int_V d^3 x \cdot \lr{ \grad \wedge G }
&=
\int_V d^3 x \cdot \lr{ \gamma^\mu \wedge \partial_\mu G } \\
&=
\int_V \lr{ d^3 x \cdot \gamma^\mu } \cdot \partial_\mu G \\
&=
\sum_{\mu \ne 3} \int_V \lr{ d^3 x \cdot \gamma^\mu } \cdot \partial_\mu G.
\end{aligned}
\end{equation}

This uses the distibution identity \( A_s \cdot (a \wedge A_r) = (A_s \cdot a) \cdot A_r \) which holds for blades \( A_s, A_r \) provided \( s > r > 0 \). Observe that only the component of the gradient that lies in the tangent space of the three volume manifold contributes to the integral, allowing the gradient to be used in the Stokes integral instead of the vector derivative (see: [1]).
Defining the the surface area element

\begin{equation}\label{eqn:maxwellStokes:140}
\begin{aligned}
d^2 x
&= \sum_{\mu \ne 3} i \cdot \gamma^\mu \inv{dx^\mu} d^3 x \\
&= \gamma_1 \gamma_2 dx dy
+ c \gamma_2 \gamma_0 dt dy
+ c \gamma_0 \gamma_1 dt dx,
\end{aligned}
\end{equation}

Stokes theorem for this volume element is now completely specified

\begin{equation}\label{eqn:maxwellStokes:200}
\int_V d^3 x \cdot \lr{ \grad \wedge G }
=
\int_{\partial V} d^2 \cdot G.
\end{equation}

Application to the dual Maxwell equation gives

\begin{equation}\label{eqn:maxwellStokes:160}
\int_{\partial V} d^2 x \cdot G
= \inv{c \epsilon_0} \int_V d^3 x \cdot (I J).
\end{equation}

After some manipulation, this can be restated in the non-dual form

\begin{equation}\label{eqn:maxwellStokes:180}
\boxed{
\int_{\partial V} \inv{I} d^2 x \wedge F
= \frac{1}{c \epsilon_0 I} \int_V d^3 x \wedge J.
}
\end{equation}

It can be demonstrated that using this with each of the standard basis spacetime 3-volume elements recovers Gauss’s law and the Ampere-Maxwell equation. So, what happened to Faraday’s law and Gauss’s law for magnetism? With application of Stokes to the curl equation from \ref{eqn:maxwellStokes:40}, those equations take the form

\begin{equation}\label{eqn:maxwellStokes:240}
\boxed{
\int_{\partial V} d^2 x \cdot F = 0.
}
\end{equation}

Problem 1:

Demonstrate that the Ampere-Maxwell equation and Gauss’s law can be recovered from the trivector (curl) equation \ref{eqn:maxwellStokes:100}.

Answer

The curl equation is a trivector on each side, so dotting it with each of the four possible trivectors \( \gamma_0 \gamma_1 \gamma_2, \gamma_0 \gamma_2 \gamma_3, \gamma_0 \gamma_1 \gamma_3, \gamma_1 \gamma_2 \gamma_3 \) will give four different scalar equations. For example, dotting with \( \gamma_0 \gamma_1 \gamma_2 \), we have for the curl side

\begin{equation}\label{eqn:maxwellStokes:460}
\begin{aligned}
\lr{ \gamma_0 \gamma_1 \gamma_2 } \cdot \lr{ \gamma^\mu \wedge \partial_\mu G }
&=
\lr{ \lr{ \gamma_0 \gamma_1 \gamma_2 } \cdot \gamma^\mu } \cdot \partial_\mu G \\
&=
(\gamma_0 \gamma_1) \cdot \partial_2 G
+(\gamma_2 \gamma_0) \cdot \partial_1 G
+(\gamma_1 \gamma_2) \cdot \partial_0 G,
\end{aligned}
\end{equation}

and for the current side, we have

\begin{equation}\label{eqn:maxwellStokes:480}
\begin{aligned}
\inv{\epsilon_0 c} \lr{ \gamma_0 \gamma_1 \gamma_2 } \cdot \lr{ I J }
&=
\inv{\epsilon_0 c} \gpgradezero{ \gamma_0 \gamma_1 \gamma_2 (\gamma_0 \gamma_1 \gamma_2 \gamma_3) J } \\
&=
\inv{\epsilon_0 c} \gpgradezero{ -\gamma_3 J } \\
&=
\inv{\epsilon_0 c} \gamma^3 \cdot J \\
&=
\inv{\epsilon_0 c} J^3,
\end{aligned}
\end{equation}

so we have
\begin{equation}\label{eqn:maxwellStokes:500}
(\gamma_0 \gamma_1) \cdot \partial_2 G
+(\gamma_2 \gamma_0) \cdot \partial_1 G
+(\gamma_1 \gamma_2) \cdot \partial_0 G
=
\inv{\epsilon_0 c} J^3.
\end{equation}

Similarily, dotting with \( \gamma_{013}, \gamma_{023}, and \gamma_{123} \) respectively yields
\begin{equation}\label{eqn:maxwellStokes:620}
\begin{aligned}
\gamma_{01} \cdot \partial_3 G + \gamma_{30} \partial_1 G + \gamma_{13} \partial_0 G &= – \inv{\epsilon_0 c} J^2 \\
\gamma_{02} \cdot \partial_3 G + \gamma_{30} \partial_2 G + \gamma_{23} \partial_0 G &= \inv{\epsilon_0 c} J^1 \\
\gamma_{12} \cdot \partial_3 G + \gamma_{31} \partial_2 G + \gamma_{23} \partial_1 G &= -\inv{\epsilon_0} \rho.
\end{aligned}
\end{equation}

Expanding the dual electromagnetic field, first in terms of the spatial vectors, and then in the space time basis, we have
\begin{equation}\label{eqn:maxwellStokes:520}
\begin{aligned}
G
&= -I F \\
&= -I \lr{ \BE + I c \BB } \\
&= -I \BE + c \BB. \\
&= -I \BE + c B^k \gamma_k \gamma_0 \\
&= \inv{2} \epsilon^{r s t} \gamma_r \gamma_s E^t + c B^k \gamma_k \gamma_0.
\end{aligned}
\end{equation}

So, dotting with a spatial vector will pick up a component of \( \BB \), we have
\begin{equation}\label{eqn:maxwellStokes:540}
\begin{aligned}
\lr{ \gamma_m \wedge \gamma_0 } \cdot \partial_\mu G
&=
\lr{ \gamma_m \wedge \gamma_0 } \cdot \partial_\mu \lr{
\inv{2} \epsilon^{r s t} \gamma_r \gamma_s E^t + c B^k \gamma_k \gamma_0
} \\
&=
c \partial_\mu B^k
\gpgradezero{
\gamma_m \gamma_0 \gamma_k \gamma_0
} \\
&=
c \partial_\mu B^k
\gpgradezero{
\gamma_m \gamma_0 \gamma_0 \gamma^k
} \\
&=
c \partial_\mu B^k
\delta_m^k \\
&=
c \partial_\mu B^m.
\end{aligned}
\end{equation}

Written out explicitly the electric field contributions to \( G \) are

\begin{equation}\label{eqn:maxwellStokes:560}
\begin{aligned}
-I \BE
&=
-\gamma_{0123k0} E^k \\
&=
-\gamma_{123k} E^k \\
&=
\left\{
\begin{array}{l l}
\gamma_{12} E^3 & \quad \mbox{\( k = 3 \)} \\
\gamma_{31} E^2 & \quad \mbox{\( k = 2 \)} \\
\gamma_{23} E^1 & \quad \mbox{\( k = 1 \)} \\
\end{array}
\right.,
\end{aligned}
\end{equation}

so
\begin{equation}\label{eqn:maxwellStokes:580}
\begin{aligned}
\gamma_{23} \cdot G &= -E^1 \\
\gamma_{31} \cdot G &= -E^2 \\
\gamma_{12} \cdot G &= -E^3.
\end{aligned}
\end{equation}

We now have the pieces required to expand \ref{eqn:maxwellStokes:500} and \ref{eqn:maxwellStokes:620}, which are respectively

\begin{equation}\label{eqn:maxwellStokes:501}
\begin{aligned}
– c \partial_2 B^1 + c \partial_1 B^2 – \partial_0 E^3 &= \inv{\epsilon_0 c} J^3 \\
– c \partial_3 B^1 + c \partial_1 B^3 + \partial_0 E^2 &= -\inv{\epsilon_0 c} J^2 \\
– c \partial_3 B^2 + c \partial_2 B^3 – \partial_0 E^1 &= \inv{\epsilon_0 c} J^1 \\
– \partial_3 E^3 – \partial_2 E^2 – \partial_1 E^1 &= – \inv{\epsilon_0} \rho
\end{aligned}
\end{equation}

which are the components of the Ampere-Maxwell equation, and Gauss’s law

\begin{equation}\label{eqn:maxwellStokes:600}
\begin{aligned}
\inv{\mu_0} \spacegrad \cross \BB – \epsilon_0 \PD{t}{\BE} &= \BJ \\
\spacegrad \cdot \BE &= \frac{\rho}{\epsilon_0}.
\end{aligned}
\end{equation}

Problem 2:

Prove \ref{eqn:maxwellStokes:180}.

Answer

The proof just requires the expansion of the dot products using scalar selection

\begin{equation}\label{eqn:maxwellStokes:260}
\begin{aligned}
d^2 x \cdot G
&=
\gpgradezero{ d^2 x (-I) F } \\
&=
-\gpgradezero{ I d^2 x F } \\
&=
-I \lr{ d^2 x \wedge F },
\end{aligned}
\end{equation}

and
for the three volume dot product

\begin{equation}\label{eqn:maxwellStokes:280}
\begin{aligned}
d^3 x \cdot (I J)
&=
\gpgradezero{
d^3 x\, I J
} \\
&=
-\gpgradezero{
I d^3 x\, J
} \\
&=
-I \lr{ d^3 x \wedge J }.
\end{aligned}
\end{equation}

Problem 3:

Using each of the four possible spacetime volume elements, write out the components of the Stokes integral
\ref{eqn:maxwellStokes:180}.

Answer

The four possible volume and associated area elements are
\begin{equation}\label{eqn:maxwellStokes:220}
\begin{aligned}
d^3 x = c \gamma_0 \gamma_1 \gamma_2 dt dx dy & \qquad d^2 x = \gamma_1 \gamma_2 dx dy + c \gamma_2 \gamma_0 dy dt + c \gamma_0 \gamma_1 dt dx \\
d^3 x = c \gamma_0 \gamma_1 \gamma_3 dt dx dz & \qquad d^2 x = \gamma_1 \gamma_3 dx dz + c \gamma_3 \gamma_0 dz dt + c \gamma_0 \gamma_1 dt dx \\
d^3 x = c \gamma_0 \gamma_2 \gamma_3 dt dy dz & \qquad d^2 x = \gamma_2 \gamma_3 dy dz + c \gamma_3 \gamma_0 dz dt + c \gamma_0 \gamma_2 dt dy \\
d^3 x = \gamma_1 \gamma_2 \gamma_3 dx dy dz & \qquad d^2 x = \gamma_1 \gamma_2 dx dy + \gamma_2 \gamma_3 dy dz + c \gamma_3 \gamma_1 dz dx \\
\end{aligned}
\end{equation}

Wedging the area element with \( F \) will produce pseudoscalar multiples of the various \( \BE \) and \( \BB \) components, but a recipe for these components is required.

First note that for \( k \ne 0 \), the wedge \( \gamma_k \wedge \gamma_0 \wedge F \) will just select components of \( \BB \). This can be seen first by simplifying

\begin{equation}\label{eqn:maxwellStokes:300}
\begin{aligned}
I \BB
&=
\gamma_{0 1 2 3} B^m \gamma_{m 0} \\
&=
\left\{
\begin{array}{l l}
\gamma_{3 2} B^1 & \quad \mbox{\( m = 1 \)} \\
\gamma_{1 3} B^2 & \quad \mbox{\( m = 2 \)} \\
\gamma_{2 1} B^3 & \quad \mbox{\( m = 3 \)}
\end{array}
\right.,
\end{aligned}
\end{equation}

or

\begin{equation}\label{eqn:maxwellStokes:320}
I \BB = – \epsilon_{a b c} \gamma_{a b} B^c.
\end{equation}

From this it follows that

\begin{equation}\label{eqn:maxwellStokes:340}
\gamma_k \wedge \gamma_0 \wedge F = I c B^k.
\end{equation}

The electric field components are easier to pick out. Those are selected by

\begin{equation}\label{eqn:maxwellStokes:360}
\begin{aligned}
\gamma_m \wedge \gamma_n \wedge F
&= \gamma_m \wedge \gamma_n \wedge \gamma_k \wedge \gamma_0 E^k \\
&= -I E^k \epsilon_{m n k}.
\end{aligned}
\end{equation}

The respective volume element wedge products with \( J \) are

\begin{equation}\label{eqn:maxwellStokes:400}
\begin{aligned}
\inv{I} d^3 x \wedge J = \inv{c \epsilon_0} J^3
\inv{I} d^3 x \wedge J = \inv{c \epsilon_0} J^2
\inv{I} d^3 x \wedge J = \inv{c \epsilon_0} J^1,
\end{aligned}
\end{equation}

and the respective sum of surface area elements wedged with the electromagnetic field are

\begin{equation}\label{eqn:maxwellStokes:380}
\begin{aligned}
\inv{I} d^2 x \wedge F &= – \evalbar{E^3}{c \Delta t} dx dy + c \lr{ \evalbar{B^2}{\Delta x} dy – \evalbar{B^1}{\Delta y} dx } dt \\
\inv{I} d^2 x \wedge F &= \evalbar{E^2}{c \Delta t} dx dz + c \lr{ \evalbar{B^3}{\Delta x} dz – \evalbar{B^1}{\Delta z} dx } dt \\
\inv{I} d^2 x \wedge F &= – \evalbar{E^1}{c \Delta t} dy dz + c \lr{ \evalbar{B^3}{\Delta y} dz – \evalbar{B^2}{\Delta z} dy } dt \\
\inv{I} d^2 x \wedge F &= – \evalbar{E^3}{\Delta z} dy dx – \evalbar{E^2}{\Delta y} dx dz – \evalbar{E^1}{\Delta x} dz dy,
\end{aligned}
\end{equation}

so
\begin{equation}\label{eqn:maxwellStokes:381}
\begin{aligned}
\int_{\partial V} – \evalbar{E^3}{c \Delta t} dx dy + c \lr{ \evalbar{B^2}{\Delta x} dy – \evalbar{B^1}{\Delta y} dx } dt &=
c \int_V dx dy dt \inv{c \epsilon_0} J^3 \\
\int_{\partial V} \evalbar{E^2}{c \Delta t} dx dz + c \lr{ \evalbar{B^3}{\Delta x} dz – \evalbar{B^1}{\Delta z} dx } dt &=
-c \int_V dx dy dt \inv{c \epsilon_0} J^2 \\
\int_{\partial V} – \evalbar{E^1}{c \Delta t} dy dz + c \lr{ \evalbar{B^3}{\Delta y} dz – \evalbar{B^2}{\Delta z} dy } dt &=
c \int_V dx dy dt \inv{c \epsilon_0} J^1 \\
\int_{\partial V} – \evalbar{E^3}{\Delta z} dy dx – \evalbar{E^2}{\Delta y} dx dz – \evalbar{E^1}{\Delta x} dz dy &=
-\int_V dx dy dz \inv{\epsilon_0} \rho.
\end{aligned}
\end{equation}

Observe that if the volume elements are taken to their infinesimal limits, we recover the traditional differential forms of the Ampere-Maxwell and Gauss’s law equations.

References

[1] A. Macdonald. Vector and Geometric Calculus. CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform, 2012.

Updated notes for ece1229 antenna theory

March 16, 2015 ece1229 , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ,

I’ve now posted a first update of my notes for the antenna theory course that I am taking this term at UofT.

Unlike most of the other classes I have taken, I am not attempting to take comprehensive notes for this class. The class is taught on slides which go by faster than I can easily take notes for (and some of which match the textbook closely). In class I have annotated my copy of textbook with little details instead. This set of notes contains musings of details that were unclear, or in some cases, details that were provided in class, but are not in the text (and too long to pencil into my book), as well as some notes Geometric Algebra formalism for Maxwell’s equations with magnetic sources (something I’ve encountered for the first time in any real detail in this class).

The notes compilation linked above includes all of the following separate notes, some of which have been posted separately on this blog: